^S  I 


LIBRARY   OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   CUIFORNIA 


ex: 


CALIFORNIA 


LIBRARY 


LIBRARY   OF   THE    UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


LIBRARY 


^^GvC^^gg 


tt  //p- 


oo 


IVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


IIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


oc 


LIBRARY   OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


CO 


LIBRARY    OF   THE    UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


C3 


^^^mi 


^s^^^M 


:^^Y>^ 


THE 


STORY    OF    SUGAR 


THE 
STORY   OF    SUGAR 


BY 


GEORGE  THOMAS  SURFACE,  Ph.D.,  M.Sc. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  GEOGRAPHY,    SHEFFIELD 
SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOL  OF  YALE  UNIVERSITY 


ILLUSTEATED 


NEW    YORK    AND    LONDON 
D.    APPLETON     AND    COMPANY 

1918 


GIFT 


Copyright,  1910,  by 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


HX 


1  I  u  u 


I  '3 


PREFACE 


Excepting  the  teclinical  and  trade  literature, 
very  little  has  been  written  on  the  world's  sugar 
industry,  and  yet  no  commodity  of  commerce  has 
had  a  more  varied,  interesting,  and  significant  his- 

.  tory.  This  volume  is  intended  to  convey  accurate 
and  readable  information  on  the  industry  in  the 
different  periods  and  stages  of  its  development. 
Although  it  is  primarily  designed  for  the  general 
reader,  the  study  is  replete  with  facts  and  economic 

,  deductions  which  will  make  it  a  valuable  source 
of  reference  in  any  course  on  industries  or  com- 
merce. 

The  exploitation  of  no  other  product  has  so  in- 
fluenced the  political  history  of  the  western  world, 
and  in  the  United  States  it  holds  the  unique  posi- 
tion of  having  ushered  in  an  era  of  corporation 
development  and  control  unprecedented  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  We  have  led  the  sugar-con- 
suming countries  of  the  earth  in  the  variety  of 
ways  in  which  sugar  is  used  as  a  staple  article  of 

V 


M678552 


PREFACE 

food,  and  are  only  exceeded  by  Great  Britain  m 
the  per  capita  consumption.  The  story  of  sugar 
which  follows  places  due  emphasis  on  the  con- 
spicuous position  of  this  country,  both  past  and 
present,  as  a  producer,  consumer,  and  distributer. 
Naturally,  the  beet-sugar  industry  receives  special 
consideration  from  the  standpoint  of  future  pros- 
pects, since  this  must  be  regarded  as  an  infant  in- 
dustry in  the  light  of  its  rapid  growth  during  the 
past  two  decades. 

I  acknowledge  with  thanks  the  information  and 
suggestions  of  the  following:  The  State  Depart- 
ments of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural  Experi- 
mental Stations  of  the  cane  and  beet-growing  states ; 
the  Editors  of  the  Louisiana  Planter  and  the  Amer- 
ican  Sugar  Industry  and  Beet-Sugar  Gazette;  and 
Professors  J.  Russell  Smith  and  Walter  Sheldon 
Tower,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  I  am 
personally  indebted  to  my  father,  Rev.  F.  D. 
Surface,  for  his  valuable  and  painstaking  assistance 
in  proof-reading. 

George  Thomas  Surface. 

Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University, 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  May,   1910. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Occurrence  in  Nature 1 

How  formed  in  plants — Natural  uses  of  sugars  in 
plants — Occurrences  of  cane  sugar — Sugar  content 
of  cane — Description  of  cane — Sorghum — Sugar  in 
Indian,  corn — The  bamboo — The  date  palm — Sugar- 
producing  trees — The  secretions  of  insects — Cane 
sugar  as  distinguished  from  other  sugars — Proper- 
ties of  other  sugars — The  sugar  of  fruits — The 
sugar  beet — Increase  in  the  sugar  by  selection  and 
cultivation — Sugar  in  melons — Raisin  sugar — Milk 
sugar — Honey. 

CHAPTER  II 

Early  History  of  Sugar 15 

The  original  home  of  sugar  cane — How  first  utilized 
— The  migration  through  Asia — The  introduction 
into  Africa  and  Europe — The  early  cultivation  in 
the  New  World — The  successes  and  failures  of  the 
American  colonists  in  cultivation  and  manufacture 
— The  sugar  traders  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth 
centuries — Methods  of  shipment  in  the  Middle 
Ages — The  increase  in  consumption  in  the  fifteenth 
century — Competition  between  the  East  and  West 

•  • 

vu 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Indies'  trade — The  price  of  sugar  in  the  sixteenth 
century — The  influence  of  chocolate,  tea,  and 
cofifee  on  the  sugar  industry — The  sugar-trading 
countries  of  the  eighteenth  century — The  effect  of 
the  sugar  industry  on  the  slave  traffic — Commodi- 
ties involved  in  the  exploiting  of  the  sugar  industry 
and  the  slave  traffic — The  status  of  the  sugar  in- 
dustry in  1828 — Depression  of  the  cane  sugar  in- 
dustry and  the  stimulation  of  the  beet-sugar  indus- 
try through  the  emancipation  of  slaves. 


CHAPTER  III 

Sugar  as  a  Food 29 

•  Classes  of  food-stuffs — The  constituents  of  sugars — 

I  Sugar's  part  in  animal  nutrition — The  natural  desire 

(  for  sweets — How  sugar  was  supplied  to  the  body 

prior    to    its    artificial    separation    from    plants — 

Physiological   effect   of   sugar — Sugar   in   foods — 

Increase  in  consumption — Factors  controlling  the 

'*  consumptiom — Special  uses  of  sugar — Molasses — 

Stability  and  deterioration  of  sugars. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Controlling  Factors  in  the  Production  of  Sugar 

Cane 40 

The  latitude  zone — Climatic  conditions  essential — 
Soil  requisites — Drainage — The  planting  season — 
Harvesting  season — Cane  enemies — Method  of 
propagation — Labor  requisites — Cost  of  produc- 
tion— Geographic  situation  of  producing  areas — 
Competitive  crops — Importance  of  crop  rotation — 
Influence  of  the  cotton  boll  weevil. 

•  •  • 

Vlll 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  V 

PAGE 

Sugar  Cane  in  the  United  States     ....       57 

Its  late  start — Elements  of  retardation — The  new 
era  of  cane  growing  in  the  United  States — Paralysis 
of  the  industry  during  the  Civil  War — Recent  ad- 
justments in  progress — Extension  of  the  acreage  by 
swamp  drainage — Why  Florida  is  not  a  large 
grower — The  status  of  the  industry  in  Georgia, 
Texas,  and  Louisiana. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Sugar  Cane  in  Other  Countries        ....       72 

Hawaii — Cuba — Porto  Rico — Phihppines — Mexico 
— Central  America — Dutch  East  Indies — South 
America:  Brazil,  Argentina,  Guiana,  Venezuela, 
Colombia,  and  Ecuador — British  West  Indies — 
French  West  Indies — China — Japan — Formosa — 
Australia — Africa. 

CHAPTER  VII 

Controlling  Factors  in  the  Production  of  Sugar 

Beets 98 

Climate,  as  to  temperature,  sunshine,  humidity, 
rainfall,  and  length  of  season — Soils,  as  to  fertility, 
physical  properties,  and  cultivation — Fertilizers — 
Seed — Enemies  to  the  crop — Variation  in  sugar 
content — Cost  of  labor — Governmental  policies — 
Competitive  crop — Factory  faciUties — By-products 
— Geographic  situation. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Rise  of  the  Beet-Sugar  Industry      .       .       .       .110 

First  successful  experiments — First  factory — Activ- 
ity in  France  during  the  Napoleonic  Wars — The 

ix 


CONTEXTS 

PAGE 

policy  of  the  French  Government — Germany's  role 
in  placing  the  industry  on  a  commercial  basis — 
Improvements  in  the  quality  of  the  beet — Improve- 
ments in  methods  of  extraction  and  manufacture — 
The  expansion  of  the  industry  in  Europe — Condi- 
tions in  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America — The 
experimental  stage  of  the  industry  in  the  United 
States — Explanation  of  early  failures — The  first 
permanent  factory  in  the  United  States — The 
poUcy  of  the  United  States  Government — History 
of  the  tariff  policy — Progress  in  factory  construction 
— Increase  in  production — Important  producing 
states — The  seed  problem — Readjustments  in 
progress  and  in  prospect. 

CHAPTER  IX 

The  Beet-Sugar  Industry  in  the  United  States    .     121 

Theoretical  sugar-beet  zone — Area  under  cultiva- 
tion compared  with  the  area  adapted  to  cultivation 
— Adaptation  of  the  crop  to  irrigation — Relative 
importance  of  producing  states — Total  production 
— Cost  of  production — Profits  per  acre — Handi- 
caps to  development — Importance  of  silo  facilities 
— Benefits  of  the  industry  to  communities — Im- 
portance of  diversified  production. 

CHAPTER  X 

The  Beet-Sugar  Industry  in  Foreign  Countries  .     139 

Total  beet-sugar  production — The  development  of 
the  beet-sugar  industry  as  compared  with  that  of 
cane  —  Germany  —  Russia  —  Austria  —  Hungary 

—  France  —  Belgium  —  Holland  —  Italy — Sweden 

—  Spain  —  Denmark  —  Great  Britain —  Roumania 

—  Switzerland  —  Bulgaria  —  Greece  —  Servia  — 
Turkey — Canada. 

X 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  XI 

PAGE 

Manufacture  of  Sugar 154 

Primitive  methods — Efficiency  of  the  crusher — 
Capacity  of  mills — Methods  of  sugar  extraction — 
"Open  kettle"  process — Old  method  of  refining — 
Modern  refining — Tabulated  stages  in  refining — 
The  milling  of  beets — Improvements  in  the  process 
— Principle  of  diffusion — Stages  in  reduction — The 
osmose  process — Sugar  drying — Sugar  grading. 

CHAPTER  XII 

Sirups 182 

Sources  of  sirups  and  molasses — Fluctuation  in 
production — Producing  states^Manufacture  of 
sirup — The  passing  of  the  sugar  maple — Its  early 
place  in  domestic  economy. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Candy,  a  National  Luxury 188 

Increase  in  demand  for  candy — National  tastes — 
Chinese  candies — Candy  consumption  in  the 
United  States — New  York  City,  the  largest  consum- 
ing center  in  the  world — Consumption  of  candy  and 
sugar  compared. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

By-Products 193 

By-products  of  cane  and  beets  enumerated — Uses 
and  natures  of  tops,  crowns,  and  pulp — Cane  tops 
as  stock  food — Disposal  of  cane  fiber  (bagasse) — 
Chemical  composition  of  molasses — IMolasses  as 
source  of  rum  and  alcohol,  fuel,  fertilizer,  and  stock 
food — Lime  cake. 

xi 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  XV 

PAGE 

From  Refiner  to  Consumer 202 

Remotemess  of  refining  centers  from  producing 
centers — First  refinery  constructed  in  North  Amer- 
ica— Early  refining  centers — Effect  of  the  French 
Revolution — Beginning  of  the  Havemeyer  business 
— Tariff  protection — Review  of  competitive  condi- 
tions during  first  half  of  nineteenth  century — The 
sugar  industry  and  the  Civil  War — Spreckles'  mo- 
nopoly on  the  Pacific  Coast — Pooling  agreement  of 
1887 — Birth  of  Sugar  Trust — Fluctuation  in  the 
refiners'  differential — Affiliation  of  the  wholesale 
grocers — Prices  and  panics — The  failure  of  inde- 
pendents— Sugar  Trust  enters  the  field  of  beet 
production — Control  of  supply — Analysis  of  price 
control. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Our  Future  Sugar  Supply 216 

Rival  crops  of  sugar  cane  and  sugar  beets — Read- 
justments in  progress  in  the  South  and  West — 
Tariff  protection — Increased  cost  of  field  production 
— Economies  of  manufacture — Sugar  exploitation 
in  new  countries — The  future  demand  and  oppor- 
tunity in  the  United  States. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Distribution  of  Sugar-Beet  and  Sugar-Cane  Areas  in  the 

United  States Frontispiece 

Stalk  of  Sugar  Cane  Showing  Root,  Stem,  and  Leaves  .  3 

Cutting  Cane •       ...  48 

Hopeton  Sugar  Plant  as  it  appeared  in  1899    ...  61 

Field  of  Sugar  Cane,  East  Baton  Rouge,  La.  ...  63 

Sugar  Refinery  in  the  Philippines 78 

Gathering  Sugar  Cane  in  the  Philippines  ....  79 

Correct  Position  of  Mature  Beet  in  Soil  .       ,       .       .100 

Well-Formed  Beet 101 

Effect  of  Bad  Sub-soil 101 

Modern  Beet  Cultivator 104 

Harvesting  a  Field  of  Sugar  Beets 106 

Loss  in  Capping 107 

Field  of  Beets  near  Albuquerque,  N.  M 122 

Field  of  Beets  near  Ithaca,  Mich 124 

Factory  of  Utah-Idaho   Sugar  Company  at  Nampa, 

Idaho 125 

Sugar  Beets 127 

Twenty-three    Hundred-pound    Sacks    of   Granulated 

Sugar 127 

Thinning  Beets .       .134 

•  •  • 

Xlll 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

First  Cultivation  After  Thinning 134 

Klein  Wanzlebcn  Sugar-Beet  Factory  (Germany)  .        .  142 

The  Old  Way  of  Extraction 155 

The  Primitive  Wooden  Rollers 156 

More  Efficient  Power  and  Rollers 156 

Nine-roller  Mill  with  a  Three-roller  Crusher   .        .        .  157 

Primitive  Sugar  House 159 

Centrifugal  Machine 166 

Vacuum  Pan 167 

Loading  Sugar  Beets  for  the  Factory        ....  169 

Beets   Stored   in   Sheds   with   V-shaped   Bins   Having 
Canals  Underneath  to  Carry  Them  to  Washing 

Drum 170 

Washing  the  Beets  with  Revolving  Brushes  to  Remove 

Dirt  and  Sand 172 

Diffusion  Battery .        .175 

Reading  the  Per  Cent.  Sugar  with  the  Polariscope       .  180 

A  Sugar-Maple  Orchard — Gathering  the  Sap .        .        .  186 


THE  STORY   OP  SUGAR 


CHAPTER   I 


/. 


OCCUERENCE   IN   NATURE 


vThe  sugars  have  a  wide  occurrence  in  nature, 
and  constitute  important  food  for  both  plants 
and  animals.  They  are  manufactured  in  green 
plants  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  and  con- 
tain hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  to 
form  water.^  Some  plants,  like  the  onion,  utilize 
sugar  durmg  the  period  of  germination,  while 
others — for  example,  the  beet — consume  part  of 
the  stored-up  sugar  in  maturing  the  flower  into 
fertile  seeds.  Most  plants  store  up  starch  in  the 
seed,  which  during  the  period  of  germination  is 
converted  into  sugars  for  available  plant  food. 
There  is  great  variation  in  the  method  and  amount 
of  sugar  manufactured  by  different  plants.  Those 
plants  having  a  conspicuous  sugar  content  are 
designated  as  sugar-producing  plants,  in  which  it 
is  concentrated  chiefly  in  the  fruit,  seed,  root,  or 
sap,  depending  on  the  species.  Cane  sugar  (su- 
3  1 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

erose)  is  by  far  the  most  abundant  of  the  sugars 
developed  in  plants,  being  the  predominant  sugar 
constituent  in  sugar  cane,  sorghum,  beets,  maples, 
melons,  and  the  various  small  and  orchard  fruits. 
The  sugar  from  the  sugar  cane,  the  suga^^beet,  and 
jthe  sugar  maple  are  chemically  identicalias  to  the 
chief  saccharine  constituents,  so  that  -lEechnically 
all  of  the  sugar  consumed  as  a  food  is  cane  sugar; 
but  by  common  usage  and  statistical  custom  the 
sugar  of  commerce  is  classified  as  cane,  beet, 
maple,  etc. 

Sugar  cane  {Saccharum  officinarum)  was  for 
centuries  almost  the  only  source  of  commercial 
sugar,  but  is  now  being  strongly  rivaled  by  the 
sugar  beet.  It  is  a  member  of  the  large  family  of 
grasses,  and  may  be  coi-sidered  one  of  the  giants 
of  the  family,  as  the  stalks  frequently  attain  a 
height  of  fifteen  feet.  The  other  important  mem- 
bers of  this  family  are  the  bamboo,  Indian  corn, 
sorghum,  the  various  cereals,  and  many  forage 
grasses;  all  of  which  contain  sugar  in  greater  or 
less  quantity. 

Matured  sugar  cane  contains  by  weight  an  aver- 
age of  eighteen  per  cent  cane  sugar,  ten  per  cent 
cellulose,  seventy  per  cent  water,  and  one  to  two 
per  cent  mineral  matter.  The  proportions  vary 
with  climate,  soil,  method  of  cultivation,  and  the 
variety  selected. 

2 


OCCURRENCE    IN    NATURE 

There  are  many  varieties  of  cane,  which  vary 
widely  in  size,  color  of  stalk,  color  and  length  of 
leaf,  color  and  quantity  of  sap,  sugar  content, 
rapidity  of  growth,  and  in  the  power  to  endure 


<>o? 


Stalk  of  Sugar  Cane  Showing  Root,  Stem,  and  Leaves. 

3 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

extremes  of  temperature  and  humidity.  The  roots, 
as  in  other  grasses,  are  fibrous,  radiate  from  the 
lower  nodes  laterally,  and  are  relatively  short, 
which  makes  sugar  cane  easily  susceptible  to  the 
destruction  of  storms.  The  stalk  is  cylindrical,  and 
consists  of  numerous  joints  of  varying  lengths. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,'  linear  in  type,  and  from 
one  to  three  feet  long.  The  leaf  clasps  the  stalk  at 
the  node  or  joint,  and  immediately  under  the  base 
of  each  leaf  in  the  node  is  a  bud  incased  in  a  pro- 
tecting sheath,  the  external  part  of  which  is  cov- 
ered with  a  plant  enamel  for  protecting  this  vital 
part  of  the  plant  against  extremes  of  temperature 
and  the  ravages  of  insects.  These  buds  contain  a 
germ  capable  of  propagating  an  individual  plant 
when  the  joints  are  planted.  Above  each  joint  is 
a  row  of  dots  or  points,  which  extend  around  the 
stalk,  and  produce  temporary  roots  when  the  stalk 
is  planted.  Botanists  long  believed  the  seed  of  the 
cane  to  be  sterile,  but  in  the  past  few  decades 
fertile  seeds  have  been  developed  in  many  tropical 
varieties.  The  percentage  of  fertile  seeds  is  so 
small,  however,  that  reproduction  by  planting  the 
stalks  is  general  in  the  cane-growing  countries. 
Some  varieties  do  not  produce  flowers,  and  in  the 
United  States  these  are  usually  preferred,  since 
the  crop  deteriorates  less  rapidly  in  case  of  delay 
in  harvesting.     Cane  matures  about  three  montlis 

4 


OCCURRENCE   IN   NATURE 

after  flowering,  while  the  sugar  beet  consumes  a 
part  of  its  sugar  content  in  the  process  of  matur- 
ing its  seeds.  The  leaves  of  cane  are  shed  from  the 
bottom  upward,  until  finally  the  stalk  stands  naked 
except  for  a  few  leaves  at  the  upper  extremity; 
and  this  marks  the  stage  when  the  crop  is  ready  for 
harvesting. 

Sorghum,  or  Chinese  cane,  bears  a  close  resem- 
blance to  sugar  cane  in  appearance,  and  in  its  cul- 
tivation requirements.  It  differs  in  the  perfection 
of  its  flowering  and  in  its  capacity  for  seed  devel- 
opment, as  a  result  of  which  propagation  by  seed 
planting  is  almost  universal.  It  also  differs  in  the 
duration  of  its  growing  period,  sorghum  maturing 
in  five  to  six  months,  whereas  cane  requires  nine 
to  thirteen  months.  Sorghum  is  also  better 
adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  temperate 
zone,  which  gives  a  larger  crop  and  a  more  util- 
izable  sugar  content.  It  has  a  limited  cultivation 
throughout  the  United  States  north  of  the  Gulf 
States.  The  sugar  content  varies  from  ten  to  thir- 
teen per  cent,  but  the  presence  of  a  small  per- 
centage of  starch  and  dextrin  makes  difficult  the 
crystallization  of  the  sugar  from  the  juice.  For 
this  reason  the  amount  of  sugar  manufactured 
from  sorghum  is  insignificant,  and  the  crop  is 
utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  molasses. 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  has  been  used  experiment- 

5 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

ally  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  It  flourishes 
throughout  the  temperate  zone  where  the  moisture 
and  soil  conditions  are  favorable,  and  where  the 
growing  season  is  not  less  than  five  months'  dura- 
tion. Its  habitat  closely  coincides  with  that  of 
sorghum  and  sugar  beets.  The  sugar  of  the  sap 
begins  to  decrease  with  the  development  of  the  ear, 
and  it  is  now  suggested  by  some  sugar  experiment- 
ers, that,  by  preventing  the  formation  of  the  ear,  it 
may  become  a  profitable  commercial  source  of 
sugar,  since  the  percentage  of  sugar  can  be  thus 
increased  to  about  twelve  per  cent. 

The  bamboo  is  a  sugar-producing  plant  which 
was  utilized  by  the  ancient  peoples  of  Asia,  and 
probably  was  the  first  plant  from  which  sugar  was 
extracted.  It  is  not  a  successful  competitor  with 
sugar  cane  and  beets,  being  lower  in  sugar  and 
higher  in  cellulose.  The  amount  of  sugar  in  the 
bamboo  varies  widely  during  the  different  stages 
of  its  growth,  as  well  as  in  the  different  species. 

For  centuries  sugar  has  been  manufactured  from 
the  different  species  of  palms  by  the  natives  of 
India,  Ceylon,  Siam,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  The  wild  date  palm  {Phoe- 
nix sylvestris)  is  the  only  important  producer  of 
date  sugar,  which,  though  used  by  the  natives  of 
Bengal  centuries  ago,  did  not  find  its  Avay  to  the 
London   market  until   1793.     The   first   shipment 

6 


OCCURREXCE    IN   NATURE 

was  small  (36  hundredweight)  and  experimental. 
The  total  production  in  Bengal  during  1793  was 
estimated  at  10,000  hundredweight.  The  date 
palm  requires  a  humid  soil  and  climate,  and  flour- 
ishes best  in  the  yicinity  of  water.  The  trees  are 
tapped  during  the  first  cold  days  of  autumn  (about 
November  1st),  so  that  the  sap  is  collected  in  de- 
scending. The  wild  date  palm  and  the  nipa  palm 
are  richest  producers,  the  juice  of  which  averages 
ten  to  twelve  per  cent  sugar.  With  the  maturing  of 
the  date  much  of  the  sugar  of  the  sap  becomes  fixed 
in  the  fruit.  Raw  date  sugar  deteriorates  more 
readily  and  more  rapidly  than  raw  cane  sugar,  but 
when  refined  it  is  equally  stable.  The  deteriora- 
tion of  the  raw  product  is  largely  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  higher  percentage  of  gluten  before  re- 
fining. 

The  sap  of  many  trees  contains  sweets  which  are 
not  sugars.  The  most  abundant  and  conspicuous 
of  these  is  mannite,  which  occurs  in  the  larch, 
apple,  cherry,  lime,  different  species  of  ash,  euca- 
lyptus, and  camel's  thorn.  Chemically  mannite  is 
an  alcohol,  which  by  oxidation  passes  into  several 
sugars.  The  manna  of  commerce  is  obtained  ex- 
clusively from  the  ash  {Fraxinus  ornus)  by  slit- 
ting the  bark  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  through 
which  the  sap  exudes  so  slowly  as  to  give  time  for 
the   evaporation   of   the   water.     Manna   contains 

7 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

sixty  to  ninety  per  cent  of  mannite,  and  in  addition 
glucose,  resin,  and  mucilage.  According  to  the 
biblical  record  manna  constituted  the  food  of  the 
Israelites  in  their  journey  through  the  wilderness 
of  Arabia.  This  was  probabl}'  obtained  from  the 
tamarix  tree  {Tamarix  mannifera),  which  exudes 
manna  abundantly  as  the  result  of  the  infesting  of 
a  scale  insect  {Gossyparia  mannipara).  There  is 
also  a  lichen  common  on  the  Arabian  deserts,  which 
exudes  manna  and  may  have  been  an  additional 
source. 

There  are  some  insects — chiefly  aphids — which 
secrete  from  a  pore  in  the  back  a  sweet  substance 
resembling  in  taste  the  exudations  of  many  of  the 
above-mentioned  trees  and  shrubs. 

During  the  first  two  centuries  of  American  his- 
tory the  sugar  maple  {Acer  saccharinum)  was  an 
important  source  of  sugar  and  molasses,  and  there 
is  still  an  annual  production  of  more  than  5,000 
tons  in  the  states  east  of  the  IMississippi  River. 
There  are  many  species  of  maple  in  Eastern  Asia, 
Europe,  and  the  United  States.  The  species  in- 
digenous to  the  United  States  are  as  follows :  sugar, 
silver,  black,  red,  striped,  and  mountain  maples  in 
the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  River ;  and  Oregon 
maple  and  vine  maple  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
Pacific  Coast  States.  Of  these  the  sugar  and  black 
maples  are  richest  in  sugar,  and  are  the  only  spe- 

8 


OCCURRENCE    IN   NATURE 

cies  utilized  extensively  in  the  production  of  sugar 
and  sirup.  These  products  are  obtained  by  evapo- 
rating the  sap  to  different  stages.  The  trees  are 
tapped  at  the  beginning  of  the  spring  thaw.  As 
the  sap  flow  increases  the  proportion  of  sugar  de- 
creases, which  is  further  lowered  by  the  blooming 
of  the  tree,  since  the  flowers  of  the  maple  are  rich 
in  nectar.  The  method  and  distribution  of  pro- 
duction will  be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter. 

All  fruits  contain  two  or  more  sugars,  of  which 
cane  sugar,  fruit  sugar,  and  grape  sugar  are  the 
most  important.  Cane  sugar  has  two  and  one  half 
times  the  sweetening  power  of  grape  sugar  and 
fruit  sugar,  which  are  known  as  invert,  or  reducing 
sugars,  because  of  the  readiness  with  which  cane 
sugar  is  converted  into  grape  sugar  and  fruit  sugar 
through  the  action  of  an  acid,  heat,  or  ferment. 
Grape  sugar  can  be  prepared  cheaply  by  boiling 
cornstarch  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  neutraliz- 
ing it  with  lime.  Because  of  its  cheapness  (about 
one  half  the  cost  of  cane  sugar)  it  has  been  used 
to  adulterate  the  light-brown  varieties  of  cane 
sugar,  and  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  table  sirups,  candies,  and  artificial  honey.  All 
soft  candies  and  a  large  proportion  of  stick  candies 
and  caramels  are  made  chiefly  of  starch  sugar 
sirups.  Fruit  sugar  is  easily  assimilated,  has  more 
sweetening  power  than  grape  sugar  but  less  than 

9 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

cane  sugar,  and  is  less  susceptible  to  fermentation 
than  grape  sugar   (dextrose). 

Of  the  American  fruits,  the  apple  and  pine- 
apple are  richest  in  sugar.  The  pineapple  has  13.3 
per  cent  sugar,  of  which  11.3  per  cent  is  cane 
sugar.  The  apple  has  given  as  high  as  14  per  cent 
sugar  in  the  fresh  fruit.  Pears  give  as  much  as 
9  per  cent  sugar,  while  peaches  seldom  contain 
more  than  2  per  cent.  Of  the  small  fruits,  straw- 
berries lead,  with  an  average  total  sugar  content 
of  11.3  per  cent,  and  raspberries  are  second,  with 
an  average  of  7  to  8  per  cent.  Although  cane 
sugar  ferments  readily  in  dilute  solutions,  it  has 
strong  antiseptic  properties  in  concentrated  form, 
as  is  demonstrated  by  the  stability  of  dried  and 
preserved  fruits. 

During  the  past  century  the  sugar  beet  has 
forged  its  way  from  an  experimental  beginning  to 
first  place  among  the  sugar-producing  plants. 
When  Maggraff  began  his  experiments  in  1747  he 
was  only  able  to  extract  1.5  per  cent  sugar;  and 
fifty  years  later  his  pupil  Achard,  who  erected  the 
first  beet-sugar  factory,  was  unable  to  extract  more 
than  3  per  cent  sugar.  The  sugar  of  the  beet  is 
sucrose,  or  cane  sugar,  and  refined  beet  sugar  dif- 
fers neither  chemically  nor  physically  from  refined 
cane  sugar.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  in  the  beet 
is  effected  in  the  leaves  which  draw  their  food  sup- 

10 


OCCURRENCE   IN   NATURE 

ply  from  the  air  and  from  the  roots.  The  chloro- 
phyll, or  green  coloring  matter  of  the  leaf,  is  the 
stimulating  agency  for  the  assimilation  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  protoplasmic  cells.  The  carbonic  acid 
is  derived  from  the  air,  and  the  water  is  supplied 
chiefly  through  the  roots.  The  sugar  is  transferred 
from  the  leaves  through  the  veins  and  stems  to  the 
root,  where  it  is  stored  for  future  use  in  maturing 
the  seed.  The  amount  of  sugar  has  been  steadily 
increased  in  the  beet  by  seed  selection,  improved 
cultivation,  and  geographic  distribution.  When 
j  Napoleon  started  his  investigations  on  the  possible 
i  domestic  sources  of  sugar,  the  maximum  sugar  con- 
tent of  beets  was  six  per  cent.  Now  beets  running 
below  twelve  per  cent  in  sugar  are  not  considered 
a  profitable  source  for  manufacture,  and  crops  have 
been  harvested  in  recent  years  in  the  arid  states 
which  contained  as  high  as  twenty-three  per  cent. 
The  high  sugar  content  in  irrigated  regions  is  pro- 
duced by  the  maximum  sunshine,  and  the  judicious 
distribution  of  water  during  the  growing  and  ma- 
turing season.  The  presence  of  requisite  mineral 
matter  is  also  of  paramount  importance,  potash  be- 
ing the  most  important.  The  potash  is  not  assimi- 
lated, but  stimulates  the  transfer  of  energy,  and  as 
a  basic  mineral  causes  the  condensation  of  formal- 
dehyde into  sugar  and  starch.  The  lower  the  sugar 
content  the  higher  will  be  the  percentage  of  ash. 

11 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  following  mineral  elements  occur  in  varying 
small  quantities  in  the  roots  and  leaves  of  the  beet 
plant:  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium, 
chlorine,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur. 

The   sugar  beet  is   distinctly   a   temperate-zone 
plant,  with  an  approximate  limit  of  32°   to  45 
north  and  south  latitude. 

Sugar  and  sirup  have  been  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  in  limited  quantities  from  watermel- 
ons. The  juice  is  comparatively  free  of  those  non- 
saccharine  elements  which  make  the  extraction  of 
sugar  difficult.  The  sugar  content  varies  from  five 
to  seven  per  cent,  and  crystallizes  with  difficulty. 
Eight  gallons  of  melon  juice  yield  one  gallon  of 
superior  sirup.  The  increased  demand  for  melons 
since  the  introduction  of  refrigerator  transporta- 
tion and  storage  has  foreclosed  the  possibility  of 
exploiting  commercially  this  source  of  sugar  and 
sirup. 

Sugar  is  manufactured  from  raisins  in  practi- 
cally all  the  countries  of  southern  Europe  and 
western  Asia.  There  are  two  forms  of  raisin 
sugar  imported  into  New  York,  the  one  from 
Svria,  Asia  ]\Iinor,  and  Turkev.  and  the  other  from 
Spain.  That  from  the  Levantine  countries  is  said 
to  be  consumed  by  250,000  Arabic-speaking  people 
in  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  Avho  prize 
this  sirupy  sugar  very  highly  as  a  coffee  sweetener. 

12 


OCCURRENCE    IN    NATURE 

The  Turks  add  to  the  delicacy  of  the  sweet  by  the 
use  of  a  few  drops  of  rose  water.  The  crystallized 
raisin  sugar  is  made  in  Spain,  where  it  constitutes 
one  of  the  common  domestic  products  of  the  small 
farm.  Small  quantities  are  imported  into  the 
United  States  by  immigrants  from  the  Iberian 
Peninsula. 

The  milk  of  mammals  contains  four  to  seven  per 
cent  of  milk  sugar  (lactose),  which  differs  but 
slightly  from  cane  sugar  chemically.  It  is  obtained 
by  evaporating  the  whey,  after  removing  the  curd 
for  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  Very  little  is  manu- 
factured in  this  country,  since  its  use  is  limited  to 
tlierapeutic  purposes.  Pure  milk  sugar  is  not  af- 
fected by  yeast,  but  milk  is  capable  of  alcoholic 
fermentation.  Mare's  milk  is  used  extensively  in 
Russia  and  in  the  countries  of  western  Asia  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  alcoholic  drinks,  koumiss,  and 
kefyr. 

Honey  has  been  used  as  a  food  since  prehistoric 
times.  In  fact  it  was  the  only  .concentrated  table 
sweet  prior  to  the  separation  of  sugar  from  sugar- 
producing  plants.  It  is  very  rich  in  carbohydrates, 
but  contains  only  a  small  percentage  of  cane  sugar. 
The  most  abundant  are  the  invert  sugars,  fruit 
sugar  and  grape  sugar.  The  chemical  composition 
of  honey  varies  more  widely  than  any  other  natu- 
ral source  of  sugars,  since  it  is  determined  almost 

13 


■     THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

exclusively  by  the  food  sources  accessible  to  the 
bees.  Honeys  are  of  two  general  types,  floral  and 
honeydew,  and  these  seldom  show  the  same  analysis 
in  different  localities.  The  sugars  of  honey  consti- 
tute about  eighty  per  cent  by  weight  and  water  fif- 
teen to  eighteen  per  cent.  The  honeydew  honeys, 
which  are  elaborated  from  the  secretion  of  insects, 
usually  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  cane  sugar 
than  the  honey  from  flowers. 

In  the  United  States  fifty  per  cent  of  the  honey 
produced  is  used  in  the  baking  and  confectionery 
trade.  The  value  of  honey  in  the  manufacture  of 
bakestuffs  and  candies  is  determined  by  its  prop- 
erty of  imparting  a  texture  and  degree  of  moisture 
which  cannot  be  produced  by  other  sugars. 


VYCMCUI     OU^::.      K(C\Ul^. 


CHAPTER    II 
EARLY   HISTORY   OF   SUGAR 

Sugar  was  first  prepared  either  frcm  sugar  cane 
or  the  bamboo,  both  of  which  belong  to  the  same 
family.  Students  of  the  subject  have  differed  in 
their  conclusions  as  to  where  sugar  cane  was  first 
cultivated,  and  no  definite  conclusion  has  yet  been 
reached  as  to  when  sugar  was  first  prepared,  j  Karl 
Ritter,  the  great  German  scientist,  is  accepted  as 
high  authority  in  his  research  investigations  on 
ancient  industries.  He  affirms  that  the  cultivation 
of  sugar  cane  was  limited  to  Bengal  until  the  fifth 
century  a.d.,  and  that  it  was  native  to  that  part  of 
India.J  About  the  fifth  century  it  was  introduced 


into  the  Tigris  Valley,  near  the  city  Jondisapur, 
and  was  soon  introduced  into  the  Euphrates  Val- 
ley. Sugar  cane  was  carried  into  China  at  a 
very  early  date,  and  has  been  cultivated  in  that 
empire  continuously  since  its  introduction.  The 
Grecian  and  Roman  historians  refer  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  sugar  cane  in  western  India.     The  earliest 

15 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

historical  records  seem  to  indicate  that  sugar  was 
obtained  in  India  from  the  bamboo  prior  to  its 
separation  from  the  sugar  cane.  Theophrastus 
refers  to  the  product  as  ''  honey  which  is  from 
bamboos."  Paulus  Egineta  refers  to  the  same 
commodity  as  "  Indian  salt."  Seneca  makes  the 
observation,  "  There  is  found  among  the  Indians 
a  honey  contained  in  the  reed  ";  and  Pliny  tells 
us,  "  Arabia  produces  sugar,  but  that  of  India  is 
more  renowned."  This  saccharine  substance, 
whether  it  was  obtained  solely  from  the  bamboo, 
or  from  both  the  bamboo  and  the  sugar  cane,  was 
not  used  as  a  food  for  many  centuries,  but  was 
prized  highly  as  a  medicine.  This  is  the  origin  of 
the  ancient  proverb,  "  Like  an  apothecary  without 
sugar,"  which  is  still  used  by  the  Spanish. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  to  prove  that  by  the 
tenth  century  sugar  was  manufactured  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  attract  the  attention  of  the  traders  of 
other  countries.  It  had  ceased  to  be  construed  as 
only  possessing  medicinal  properties,  and  had  grad- 
ually gained  in  popularity  as  a  delicious  food  lux- 
ury to  be  indulged  in  during  special  feasts. 

Sugar-cane  plants  were  carried  from  Arabia  into 
Nubia,  Ethiopia,  and  Egypt,  and  were  first  intro- 
duced into  Europe  by  the  Moors  in  the  eighth 
century.    Until  the  thirteenth  century  the  cultiva- 

16 


EARLY   HISTORY   OF   SUGAR 

tion  was  restricted  to  Spain,  at  which  time  it  was 
introduced  into  Cyprus  and  Sicily. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  sugar  cane  into 
Europe,  honey  was  the  most  common  saccharin  in 
use,  and  was  recognized  as  the  standard  of  sweet- 
ness. Sugar  proved  to  be  a  sweet  of  far  greater 
utility  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  could  be 
produced,  transported,  exchanged,  and  preserved. 
It  was  also  incomparably  better  adapted  to  the  art 
of  cooking.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  became 
an  important  industry  in  Sicily  by  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  was  in  this  century  that  the  King  of 
Portugal  sent  cane  cuttings  from  Sicily  for  plant- 
ing in  the  Madeira  and  Canary  Islands.  The  in- 
dustry so  flourished  that  Europe,  during  the  suc- 
ceeding two  hundred  years,  drew  her  sugar  supply 
chiefly  from  these  islands.  From  the  Canary  Is- 
lands sugar  cane  was  introduced  into  Brazil  early 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  about  the  same  time 
the  cultivation  began  to  assume  importance  in  the 
Island  of  San  Domingo.  The  intensity  with  which 
the  industry  was  exploited  in  San  Domingo  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  in  1518  there  were  twen- 
ty-eight "  sucreries  ''  in  the  island.  From  San 
Domingo  the  cultivation  spread  successively  to 
Mexico  (1520),  Guadaloupe  (1644),  and  Martin- 
ique (1650).  Sugar  cane  was  not  introduced  into 
the  American  colonies  until  1751,  during  which 
3  17 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

year  the  Jesuit  Fathers  of  San  Domingo  sent  to  the 
Jesuits  of  Louisiana  sugar  cane  for  planting,  and 
also  sent  negroes,  who  were  accustomed  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  plant  in  their  native  islands.  The 
cane  grew  luxuriantly,  but  the  growers  were  unsuc- 
cessful in  converting  it  ir+o  sugar.  After  years  of 
continuous  effort  and  repeated  failures,  the  proj- 
ect was  abandoned  in  1776,  and  was  not  resumed 
until  1791,  During  this  year  Don  Antonio  ]\Iendez 
succeeded  in  manufacturing  sugar  for  the  first 
time  in  Louisiana,  and  this  was  easily  accomplished 
by  securing  the  services  of  a  sugar  maker  from 
Cuba.  In  1794  Etienne  Debore  was  so  successful 
in  the  manufacture  of  his  crop  that  several  sugar 
houses  were  erected  in  southern  Louisiana.  The 
first  cane  cultivated  in  North  America  was  the 
Creole  variety,  which  was  followed  by  the  Tahiti 
variety.  Neither  of  these  was  adapted  to  the  soil 
and  climate  of  the  Gulf  Coast.  Early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  purple  or  ribbon  cane  was 
planted  in  Georgia,  and  grew  so  satisfactorily  that, 
in  1820,  John  Coiron  introduced  it  into  Louisiana. 
This  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  cultivation  of  cane 
in  Louisiana,  and  in  reality  marks  the  commercial 
beginning  of  the  sugar  industry  in  the  United 
States.  The  purple  canes  rai3idly  spread  through 
the  State,  and  proved  so  well  adapted  that  they 
have  continued  in  general  use. 

18 


EARLY    HISTORY    OF    SUGAR 

Between  the  tenth  and  twelfth  centuries  the 
Venetians  conducted  a  limited  sugar  trade  with 
India,  Egypt,  and  Syria.  During  this  period 
sugar  cane  was  also  grown  on  the  Island  of  Sicily. 
The  Venetians  controlled  the  domestic  production 
and  were  strong  rivals  in  the  import  trade,  which 
made  the  city  of  Venice  the  leading  market  center. 
The  merchants  of  Genoa  were  associated  with  those 
of  Venice  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Asiatic  trade, 
which  has  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  interest 
they  manifested  later  in  the  search  for  a  more 
direct  and  less  dangerous  route  to  India. 

Recent  research  on  the  ancient  sea  laws  has  made 
some  remarkable  revelations  as  to  the  statutes  and 
customs  regulating  the  shipment  of  sugar.  Ac- 
cording to  Pegolotti,  there  were  four  ways  of  pre- 
paring sugar  for  shipment  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Large  loaves  were  placed  in  a  palm-leaf  hat,  cov- 
ered with  a  palm-leaf  covering,  and  the  hat  and  the 
palm  leaf  sewed  together  securely.  This  was  then 
wrapped  securely  in  canvas,  on  which  the  mer- 
chant placed  his  mark.  Loaf  sugar  could  also  be 
placed  in  barrels,  previously  lined  with  the  dry 
leaves  of  sugar  cane  to  prevent  the  loss  of  sugar 
in  transit.  The  largest  size  loaves  were  packed  in 
chests  {cassa),  which  were  securely  wrapped  with 
canvas  and  cords.  The  fourth  form  of  shipment 
was  the  cube,  which  were  cut  from  loaves  and  six- 

19 


THE    STORY   OF    SUGAR 

teen  packed  in  a  chest.  Freight  rates  were  fixed 
largely  by  the  ship  space  required,  so  that  a  lower 
rate  was  given  on  sugar  in  hats  than  on  sugar  in 
chests.  As  the  sugar-producing  countries  in- 
creased, special  laws  were  enacted,  applicable  to 
sugar  shipments  from  different  countries.  If  the 
record  of  Pegolotti  is  correct,  the  sugar  merchants 
of  the  Middle  Ages  obtained  concessionary  freight 
rates,  in  that  they  paid  no  freight  on  the  wrap- 
pings, chests,  anl  barrels,  while  other  people  paid 
for  the  weight  of  the  merchandise  with  all  its  tara. 
Probably  no  other  industry  has  maintained  so  per- 
sistently a  reputation  for  unjust  discrimination  t 
and  maladministration.  The  more  sanguine  advo-/ 
cates  of  toleration  might  explain  the  present  de- 
plorable status  of  the  sugar  business  in  the  United 
States  as  "  history  repeating  itself,"  but  a  more 
reasonable  explanation  is  that  it  is  the  depravity 
of  greed  continuing. 

The  Crusades  and  the  Holy  Wars  were  not  with- 
out significant  effect  on  the  sugar  trade.  The  Cru- 
saders from  central  and  western  Europe  returned 
with  pleasant  memories  of  the  wonderful  sweet 
they  had  found  in  Syria,  Arabia,  Palestine,  and 
Egypt.  Their  long  itinerary  through  Southern  Eu- 
rope had  also  brought  their  attention  to  the  chan- 
nels of  trade  through  which  this  newly  awakened 
desire  could  be  satisfied.     The  closing  decades  of 

20 


EARLY    HISTORY    OF    SUGAR 

the  fourteenth  century  brought  unwonted  activity 
to  the  overland  and  sea  trade  routes  between  Eu- 
rope and  Africa,  and  between  Europe  and  Asia; 
and  sugar  was  one  of  the  much  coveted  commodities 
in  the  import  trade.  In  1420  a  Venetian  invented 
a  new  method  of  refining  sugar  which  seemed  to 
assure  Venice  of  controlling  power  in  its  manufac- 
ture and  distribution.  The  importance  of  the  dis- 
covery is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  he  received 
100,000  crowns  ($120,000)  for  his  invention. 

The  largest  European  consumers  were  the  Eng- 
lish, French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese,  who  w^re 
rapidly  tiring  of  the  extortionate  prices  demanded 
by  the  Venice  brokers.  The  price  on  the  London 
market  in  1482  was  $275  per  hundredweight, 
which  was  almost  double  the  price  of  a  century 
earlier.  Stimulating  forces  were  at  work  from 
entirely  different  motives,  which  were  destined 
not  only  to  change  the  sugar  centers,  but  to 
revolutionize  the  world's  trade.  The  increased 
Asiatic  trade  of  the  Mediterranean  merchants  de- 
veloped more  serious  obstacles  along  the  trade 
routes.  Not  only  w^ere  robberies  frequent  and  de- 
structive, but  the  Mohammedans  exacted  heavy 
tolls  for  the  privilege  of  passing  through  their  ter- 
ritory. All  this  was  used  as  a  basis  and  excuse  for 
raising  the  price  on  all  imports,  which  in  turn 
fired  the  purchasers  with  the  desire  to  eliminate 

21 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

the  middlemen  by  trading  direct  with  India  and 
the  Red  Sea  country,  and  by  producing  a  greater 
variety  of  products  at  home.  Following  out  the 
latter  idea,  the  Portuguese  had  already  (1422) 
introduced  sugar  cane  in  the  Madeira  Islands, 
where  it  grew  so  successfully  that  its  cultivation 
was  extended  persistently  southward,  and  by  1472 
it  had  been  carried  along  the  western  coast  of 
Africa  as  far  south  as  St.  Thomas  Island,  on  the 
equator.  Sugar-cane  cultivation  was  now  passing 
through  its  experimental  stages  in  the  islands  of 
the  western  Atlantic,  and  Venice  began  to  lose 
and  London  to  gain  control  of  the  western  Euro- 
pean trade.  By  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  price  of  sugar  on  the  London  market  was  $53 
per  hundredweight,  as  compared  with  $275  per 
hundredweight  in  1482.  For  many  reasons  the 
last  decade  of  the  fifteenth  century  marked  an 
epochal  period  in  the  sugar  industry.  The  Geno- 
ese, Spanish,  and  Portuguese,  in  their  determina- 
tion to  find  a  shorter  and  less  hostile  route  to  India 
and  Cathay  (China),  had  discovered  the  West 
Indies,  and  stumbled  on  a  new  world.  From  this 
new  world,  to  which  they  were  soon  to  carry  sugar 
cane,  they  brought  the  bean  of  the  cocoa  tree,  from 
which  a  much-relished  drink  was  made  by  the  ad- 
dition of  sugar.  Its  use  spread  with  phenomenal 
rapidity  throughout  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  but  be- 

22 


EARLY    HISTORY    OF    SUGAR 

came  especially  popular  in  Spain,  where  it  con- 
tinues to  be  used  more  extensively  than  elsewhere. 
To  meet  the  demand,  the  Spanish  began  a  vigor- 
ous exploitation  of  both  the  cocoa  and  sugar  in- 
dustry in  the  West  Indies  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  while  the  Portuguese  continued  to  foster 
the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  in  the  Madeira  and 
Canary  Islands.     Sugar  cane  was  introduced  into 
Hayti  in  1515,  which  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
industry  in  the  West  India  group.     The  Spanish  j 
Government  levied  a  heavy  import  tax,  and  offered  ; 
a  liberal  bounty  to  all  colonists  of  the  island  who  j 
would  erect  sugar  mills. 

Spain  and  Portugal  dominated  the  sugar  indus- 
try of  Europe  during  the  sixteenth  century,  but 
Portugal  led  in  extensions,  improvements,  and 
transportation.  Her  monopoly  of  the  sugar-carry- 
ing trade  was  backed  both  by  her  large  raw  sugar 
production  and  by  her  naval  supremacy.  Lisbon 
now  became  the  great  sugar-receiving  port  of  Eu- 
rope, and  in  consequence  flourished.  Egj^pt  was 
taken  by  the  Turks  in  1518,  which  closed  to  West- 
ern Europe  the  Eastern  sources  of  sugar  through 
the  Mediterranean  trade  routes.  This  had  a  far- 
reaching  effect  on  its  exploitation  in  the  islands  of 
the  Atlantic.  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  Ant- 
werp became  an  important  sugar-refining  center. 
This  development  Portugal  welcomed,  as  it  was 

23 


THE    STORY   OF    SUGAR 

near  the  center  of  her  field  of  trade— England, 
Scotland,  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Germany, 
and  Poland.  The  English  attempted  sugar  refining 
at  London  as  early  as  1544,  but  were  unable  to 
manufacture  it  so  as  to  compete  with  the  Antwerp 
refiners.  In  1585  Antwerp  was  taken  by  the  Duke 
of  Parma,  and  the  English  were  then  forced  to 
develop  the  sugar-refining  industry.  Following 
1585,  London  became  the  important  refining  cen- 
ter of  sugar  for  the  European  trade. 

Diego  Velasquez  conquered  the  island  of  Cuba  in 
1511-12,  and  many  colonists  came  to  Cuba  from 
Hayti.  Spain  had  the  chance  of  developing  an 
important  sugar  industry  in  the  West  Indies  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  but  the  Government  at  this 
time  was  gold  mad,  and  discouraged  agricultural 
production  in  favor  of  mining.  The  first  sugar  mill 
was  erected  in  Cuba  in  1547,  but  the  industry  made 
little  progress  in  the  sixteenth  century  for  lack  of 
suitable  laborers.  A  French  trading  company 
made  a  special  contract,  in  1701,  with  the  Spanish 
Government  for  conducting  trade  between  France, 
Spain,  the  West  Indies,  and  America,  to  the  value 
of  the  negroes  sold  to  the  Spanish  colonists  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  to  the  North  American  colonists. 
During  the  previous  century  the  Spanish  had  en- 
slaved the  native  Indians,  but  they  were  neither 
suited  to  mining  nor  to  agriculture. 

24 


EARLY   HISTORY    OF    SUGAR 

Although  the  French  were  chiefly  interested  in 
stimulating  tobacco  cultivation,  sugar  cane  in- 
creased steadily  with  the  influx  of  colonists  and 
the  importation  of  African  slaves. 

The  Dutch  possession  of  Brazil  from  1624  to 
1654  had  given  them  an  important  position  in  the 
sugar  trade.  In  fact,  they  were  so  outbidding 
England  for  the  West  Indian  and  colonial  com- 
merce, that  the  English  resorted  to  the  vigorous 
policy  of  the  Navigation  Acts,  restricting  the  ship- 
ment of  ''enumerated  articles  to  England,  Ireland, 
or  some  other  of  his  Majesty's  plantations ;  in  Eng- 
lish, Irish  or  plantation-built  ships,  owned  by  Eng- 
lishmen, and  whereof  the  Master  and  three-fourths 
of  the  Mariners  at  least  are  English."  Sugar  was 
the  first  of  the  enumerated  articles.  By  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  English  had  severely 
crippled  the  Dutch  carrying  trade,  which,  coupled 
with  the  establishment  and  improvement  of  refin- 
ing methods  at  London,  enabled  the  English  to 
control  the  sugar  market,  notwithstanding  the 
slight  attention  they  had  given  to  extending  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  in  the  colonies.  The  English 
consumption  of  sugar  also  rapidly  increased  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Chocolate  drinking  had  already  been  introduced 
from  Spain,  but  coffee,  introduced  in  1650,  was 
destined  to  grow  in  favor  more  rapidly,  because 

25 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

of  its  being  cheaper  and  more  easily  prepared. 
The  demand  for  sugar  increased  proportionately. 

The  dawn  of  the  eighteenth  century  found  the 
English,  French,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese  strug- 
gling for  the  European  sugar  trade.  England  was 
stimulating  production,  particularly  in  Jamaica 
and  the  Barbadoes,  but  lost  ground  in  her  foreign 
trade  through  the  heavy  duties  imposed  by  James 
II.  The  greatest  activity  in  cultivation  was  in 
progress  in  the  French  West  Indies,  and  the  Eng- 
lish policy  played  to  France's  favor  both  in  pro- 
duction and  distribution.  The  Dutch  traders  con- 
tinued to  purchase  clandestinely  much  sugar  from 
the  English  colonists  in  the  West  Indies,  which 
had  a  salient  influence  in  keeping  the  price  of 
sugar  down  in  the  countries  of  Europe. 

The  introduction  of  sugar  cane  into  the  Barba- 
does Islands  in  1641  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the 
slave  traffic  in  the  British  West  Indies.  In  1662 
the  "  Company  of  Royal  Adventurers  Trading  to 
Africa  "  was  chartered  and  obligated  itself  to 
deliver  3,000  slaves  annually  to  the  British  West 
Indies.  The  West  Indian  sugar  trade  with  the 
continental  colonies  of  North  America  began  to 
assume  importance  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Inseparably  associated  with  it  was 
the  exportation  of  rum,  molasses,  and  tobacco,  and 
the  importation  of  lumber,  horses,  and  fish.    Many 

26 


EARLY    HISTORY    OF    SUGAR 

cargoes  of  sugar,  rum,  and  tobacco  were  reshipped 
from  the  mainland  to  England.  Large  consign- 
ments of  rum  were  shipped  to  New  England,  where 
it  was  sold  to  the  Indians  for  furs,  which  constituted 
one  of  the  most  important  colonial  exports  from  the 
northern  colonies..  Rum  was  at  the  same  time  the 
West  Indian  export  most  in  demand  in  the  Afri- 
can trade,  where  it  was  exchanged  for  slaves,  which 
were  demanded  by  the  sugar  planters  for  increas- 
ing the  sugar  production.  The  English,  French, 
and  the  Portuguese  were  actively  engaged  in  the 
African  slave  trade.  The  West  India  Islands  con- 
stituted the  center  of  the  intercolonial  trade  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century.  All  the  economic  and 
physical  conditions  combined  to  make  it  so. 
Sugar  and  rum  were  the  largest  exports,  with  to- 
bacco second  in  importance.  These  commodities 
were  exchangeable  for  slaves  from  Africa,  manu- 
factures from  Europe,  and  lumber,  fish,  and  live 
stock  from  the  continental  colonies  of  America. 
Europe  offered  a  ready  market  for  sugar,  mo- 
lasses, and  tobacco;  and  the  American  colonists 
were  heavy  purchasers  of  sugar,  molasses,-  rum,  and 
slaves.  The  colonies  were  large  exporters  to  Europe 
of  tobacco,  lumber,  and  furs,  where  a  cargo  suit- 
able for  the  African  slave  trade  could  easily  be 
obtained.  Whether  a  ship,  therefore,  started  from 
Europe,  America,  or  Africa,  it  was  almost  impos- 

37 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

sible  for  it  to  have  to  go  in  ballast  any  part  of  this 
triangular  journey. 

The  first  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
epochal  in  the  changes  and  readjustments  in  prog- 
ress in  the  sugar  industry.  The  San  Domingo 
negro  insurrection  was  very  destructive  to  the 
sugar  plantations  of  that  island,  and  Spain  had 
taken  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  develop  the 
sugar  industry  in  Cuba  and  Porto-  Rico.  The  abo- 
lition of  the  slave  trade  by  England  depressed  the 
sugar  industry  in  the  British  West  Indies,  and 
correspondingly  enlivened  the  slave  trade  and 
sugar  cultivation  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  In 
1800  Havana  exported  20,000  tons  of  sugar,  while 
the  export  in  1820  was  50,000  tons.  As  the  time 
approached  for  the  emancipation  of  all  slaves  in 
the  British  colonies  (1833)  the  sugar  cultivation 
gravitated  to  the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French 
possessions.  In  1828  slave  labor  was  producing 
more  than  half  of  the  world's  sugar,  the  leading 
producing  countries  which  utilized  slaves  being 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  65,000  tons;  Brazil,  28,000 
tons;  French  colonies,  50,000  tons;  Dutch  Guiana, 
10,000  tons ;  and  Louisiana,  20,000  tons.  The  beet- 
sugar  industry  was  at  this  time  growing  in  impor- 
tance in  Europe,  and  received  an  added  impetus 
through  the  world-wide  emancipation  of  slaves  wit- 
nessed by  the  succeeding  decades. 

28 


CHAPTER    III 
SUGAR  AS   A   FOOD 

Sugars  and  starches  constitute  the  large  class  of 
foods  called  carbohydrates,  which  being  entirely 
free  of  nitrogen  are  often  designated  as  the  non- 
nitrogenous  foodstuffs.  They  contain  carbon  in 
connection  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  are  eas- 
ily converted  by  oxidation  into  fats.  The  ease  of 
this  process  makes  it  an  important  foodstuff  for 
the  generation  of  heat  and  the  maintenance  of 
physical  strength.  Cane  sugar  has  a  heat  or 
energy  producing  value  as  great  as  lean  meat, 
which  is  a  typical  proteid  or  nitrogenous  food- 
stuff'. 

Sugars  are  divided  chemically  into  two  classes, 
single  (monosaccharid)  and  double  (disaccharid) 
sugars.  Grape  sugar  {dextrose,  CgHioOg)  and 
fruit  sugar  {levulose,  CeH^oOg)  are  the  most  com- 
mon monosaccharids ;  and  cane  sugar  {sucrose, 
CjoHooOiJ,  milk  sugar  {lactose,  CioHooOn-HoO), 
and  malt  su^ar   {maltose,  C10H20O11.H2O)  are  the 

29 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

most  common  of  the  disaccliarids.  Attention  is 
called  to  these  two  classes  of  sugars  for  the  reason 
that  cane  sugar,  a  disaccharid,  must  be  converted 
into  a  monosaccharid  before  it  can  be  assimilated 
in  the  body  for  the  formation  of  organic  tissue 
and  the  production  of  bodily  heat  and  energy.  The 
change  is  effected  either  during  or  immediately 
preceding  absorption.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
practically  none  of  the  sugars  absorbed  enter  the 
circulation  through  the  lymphatic  system,  but  are 
conveyed  into  the  portal  vein,  through  which  they 
are  carried  to  the  liver.  Sugar  is  an  essential  food 
for  the  blood,  but  to  prevent  the  assimilation  of  an 
excess  is  equally  essential.  "  The  liver  serves  as 
an  effective  regulator,  maintaining  in  spite  of  all 
fluctuations  in  the  supply  and  demand,  a  definite 
percentage  of  sugar  such  as  is  best  adapted  to  keep 
the  tissue  of  the  body  in  a  normal  and  healthy  con- 
dition."    (Chittenden.) 

Sugars  being  demanded  for  a  balanced  ration, 
nature  has  provided  for  her  needs  both  by  a  diver- 
sified supply  and  by  giving  to  the  higher  animals 
a  sensory  desire  for  sweets.  Sweet  is,  therefore, 
one  of  the  natural  tastes,  the  other  fundamental 
ones  being  acid,  salt,  and  bitter.  This  sensory  de- 
sire is  not  only  present  in  man,  but  in  many  of  the 
lower  animals.  The  bear  and  the  fox,  in  their 
ravages  on  the  wild  honey  of  the  forest  and  field, 

30 


SUGAR   AS   A   FOOD 

probably  experience  a  sensory  satisfaction  resem- 
bling that  of  the  hungry  child  who  partakes  of 
sweets  from  mother's  cupboard.  It  can  scarcely 
be  argued  that  the  bee  performs  an  irksome  task 
while  it  extracts  sweets  from  the  choicest  flowers 
and  fruits. 

A  noted  physician  made  the  comment  recently 
that  sweetness  is  to  the  taste  what  beauty  is  to  the 
eye,  and  that  Nature's  approval  is  stamped  by  the 
fact  that  sugar  is  the  most  universal  flavor  in 
foodstufi^s,  more  than  one  half  of  foods  having 
a  sweet  or  sweetish  taste,  as  compared  with  one 
third  which  taste  salty  and  about  one  tenth  bitter 
or  sour. 

Prior  to  the  separation  of  sugar  from  sugar-pro- 
ducing plants,  it  was  consumed  in  varying  quan- 
tities in  the  fruits,  roots,  barks,  and  seeds.  Men 
got  along  for  ages  with  this  limited  supply,  since 
the  starch  foods  were  consumed  in  large  quantities, 
which,  through  the  processes  of  digestion,  are  con- 
.verted  in  part  into  sugars.  The  utilization  of  sugar 
plants  thiLs  permits  cane  and  beet  fields  to  render 
a  service  long  performed  by  the  fields  that  yielded 
potatoes,  grains,  and  other  starch  foods,  all  of 
which  are  less  appetizing  than  the  universally  ap- 
preciated sugar. 

The  sugars  from  cane,  beets,  and  the  sugar  tree 
are  identical  chemically,  but  have  been  so  distinct 

31 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

in  the  economic  and  commercial  development  of  the 
industry  as  to  justify  separate  treatment  in  the 
Story  of  Sugar. 

During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
when  the  world's  sugar  supply  was  so  limited,  and 
the  transportation  facilities  so  inferior  as  to  make 
it  difficult  to  obtain  the  commodity,  large  quanti- 
ties of  maple  sugar  were  manufactured  from  the 
natural  sugar-tree  orchards  so  generously  dis- 
tributed over  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 
The  demand  for  sweets  was  also  in  part  met  by  the 
manufacture  of  molasses  from  sorghum,  which  is 
as  naturally  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  north- 
ern half  of  the  United  States  as  is  sugar  cane  to  the 
southern  half.  With  the  clearing  of  the  forests 
and  the  lowering  of  the  price  of  sugar  from  cane 
and  beets,  the  maple-sugar  industry  has  steadily 
declined.  Since  maple  sirup  has  grown  in  favor 
and  increased  proportionately  in  price,  the  sap  of 
the  sugar  tree,  where  utilized,  is  almost  universally 
converted  into  the  sirup. 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  disastrous  results 
from  the  excessive  use  of  sugar  as  a  food.  It  was 
formerly  thought  that  most  of  the  organic  diseases 
of  the  liver  and  kidneys  were  either  directly  or 
indirectly  attributable  to  the  heavy  consumption 
of  sweets.  In  the  light  of  modern  physiological 
and  pathological  research  into  the  relative  effects 

32 


SUGAR    AS    A    FOOD 

of  the  different  foods  consumed,  it  seems  conclusive 
that  the  excessive  use  of  sugar  produces  no  organic 
impairment  except  through  indigestion,  since  the 
portal  circulation  will  not  absorb  a  larger  amount 
of  sugar  than  is  required  to  meet  the  normal  de- 
mands for  nutrition.  Not  only  will  an  excess  result 
in  serious  forms  of  indigestion,  but  will  likely  re- 
sult in  an  insufficient  consumption  of  the  proteid 
foods.  A  balanced  ration  requires  the  consump- 
tion of  both  sugars  and  proteids,  and  if  the  inves- 
tigations of  the  Minnesota  Experimental  Station  be 
correct,  the  nitrogen  retention  of  the  proteid  food 
is  increased  twenty-five  per  cent  when  consumed 
with  sugar.  It  is  impossible  to  say  w^hat  constitutes 
an  excess  of  sugar,  since  what  would  be  an  excess 
for  one  person  would  not  be  for  another.  The 
amount  of  sugar  demanded  for  normal  and  healthy 
nutrition  depends  upon  the  amount  of  starchy 
foods  consumed,  the  habits  and  physical  condition 
of  the  consumer,  and  the  demands  upon  the  body 
through  external  conditions,  such  as  climate,  sea- 
son, labor,  etc. 

The  content  and  adaptation  of  representative 
foodstuffs  for  the  purposes  of  nutrition  may  be 
judged  from  the  following  table: 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

TABLE   I 

Composition  of  Common  Foods 


Names  of  Food. 


Dried  corned  beef 

Dried    prunes    (edible 

portion) 

Dried  peas 

Roast  turkey 

Corn  meal 

Butter 


Proteid. 

Starch 
and  Sugar 

(Carbo- 
hydrate). 

Water. 

Mineral 
Matter. 

39.2 

0.0 

44.8 

11.2 

2.1 

173.2 

22.3 

2.3 

24.6 

62.0 

9.5 

2.9 

27.8 

0.0 

52.0 

1.2 

8.4 

74.0 

11.6 

1.3 

1.0 

0.0 

11.0 

3.0 

Fat. 


5.4 

0.0 
1.0 

18.4 
4.7 

85.0 


1  Chiefly  sugar. 


Notwithstanding  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
world's  production  of  sugar  during  the  past  three 
decades,  the  United  States  has  steadily  increased 
her  percentage  of  the  total  consumption  through- 
out this  period.  The  world's  sugar  production  ag- 
gregated 17,000,000,000  pounds  in  1887,  as  com- 
pared with  32,000,000,000  pounds  in  1907.  The 
United  States  consumed  18.1  per  cent  of  the  total 
in  1907.  Our  per  capita  consumption  in  1850  was 
only  21  pounds,  but  increased  to  53  pounds  in  1887, 
and  to  83  pounds  in  1908.  We  now  represent  the 
largest  consumers  of  sugar  among  the  nations  of 
the  earth,  excepting  England  and  Australia,  whose 
consumption  in  1907  was  respectively  93.5  pounds 
(England)   and  100  pounds  (Australia)  : 

34 


SUGAR    AS    A    FOOD 


TABLE  II 
European  Per  Capita  Consumption  in  1907 


Pounds 

Germany 40.92 

Austria 24.32 

France 36 .  05 

Russia. 20.55 

Holland 41 .  40 

Belgium..    29.70 

Denmark 73-68 

Sweden  and  Norway .  .  47 .  88 

Italy.... 7.63 

Roumania 7 .  83 


Pounds 

Spain 11.37 

Portugal  and  Madeira  15.51 

England 93 .  50 

Bulgaria 7.98 

Greece 10.16 

Servia 6.92 

Turkey 11.73 

Switzerland 55 .  22 


All  Europe 31 .  61 


The  great  variation  in  the  amount  of  sugar  con- 
sumed in  the  different  countries  is  attributable  to 
many  factors,  the  most  important  of  which  are: 
the  average  prosperity  of  the  people,  the  geographi- 
cal situation  with  reference  to  sugar  production 
and  sugar  markets,  the  price  of  sugar,  the  native 
foodstuffs  in  most  common  use,  and  the  traditions 
of  the  people  with  reference  to  popular  foods. 

The  increased  cost  of  many  foodstuffs  has  un- 
questionably increased  the  sugar  consumption. 
There  has  been  a  phenomenal  increase  in  the  cost 
of  meats,  dairy  products,  poultry  products,  and 
flour.  While  1909  was  conspicuous  for  the  rise  in^ 
the  price  of  these  important  foods,  the  average 
price  of  sugar  was  somewhat  below  the  price  in 
1908.  This  condition  is  naturally  leading  the  peo- 
ple into  the  preparation  of  a  greater  variety  of 

35 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

dishes  in  which  sugar  is  an  important  constituent, 
Such  a  necessity  comes  as  a  bane  to  the  poor  who 
do  heavy  manual  labor,  and  who  must  substitute 
starch  and  sugar  foods  for  proteids  and  fats  be- 
cause of  the  prohibitory  prices  on  meats  and 
butter. 

The  amount  of  sugar  consumed  in  any  country 
fluctuates  quite  appreciably  with  the  financial  con- 
dition of  the  country.  In  times  of  great  financial 
depression  sugar  becomes  a  luxury  to  the  poorer 
classes,  and  they  refrain  from  buying  it  in  favor 
of  cheaper  starch  foods.  This  statement  is  verified 
by  the  sugar  statistics  during  the  decade  1890- 
1900.  Tliis  was  a  period  of  protracted  and  general 
financial  depression  in  the  United  States.  In  1891 
the  per  capita  sugar  consumption  in  the  United 
States  was  60.7  i:)ounds,  while  in  1899  the  consump- 
tion was  61.8  pounds.  In  other  words,  there  was 
very  slight  increase  in  the  average  consumption  of 
sugar  during  this  decade ;  while  from  1899  to  1909 
the  per  capita  consumption  increased  from  61.8 
pounds  to  83  pounds.  The  latter  period  is  recog- 
nized as  one  of  unprecedented  financial  prosperity, 
the  proof  of  which  is  clearly  written  in  the  rapid 
and  general  increase  in  the  use  of  sugar  as  a  food. 
In  addition  to  the  general  prosperity  of  the  pa^t 
decade  there  has  been  a  decline  in  the  price  of 
sugar  which  was  also  conducive  to  an  increased 

36 


SUGAR   AS   A   FOOD 

consumption.  The  average  price  of  refined  granu- 
lated sugar  in  1890  was  6.27  cents  per  pound,  as 
compared  with  an  average  price  of  4.65  cents  in 
1909.  In  conformity  with  the  facts,  it  should  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  a  part  of  the  increase  in 
the  use  of  sugar  in  the  past  decade  is  attributable 
to  the  rapid  development  of  canneries  and  confec- 
tioneries. 

An  important  part  of  the  world's  sugar  produc- 
tion is  consumed  in  the  use  of  cocoa,  chocolate, 
tea,  and  coffee;  and  in  the  manufacture  of  wines, 
rum,  and  other  spirituous  drinks.  Since  the  use  of 
all  of  these  beverages  and  drinks  is  increasing 
throughout  the  world,  this  will  proportionately  in- 
crease the  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  future.  The 
introduction  of  coffee  into  Europe  in  1650  gave  a 
new  stimulus  to  the  European  sugar  market  dur- 
ing the  latter  decades  of  the  seventeeth  century. 

Much  has  been  written  as  to  the  comparative 
qualities  of  beet  and  cane  sugar,  both  as  a  food  and 
as  adapted  to  the  culinary  art.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  made  extensive  ex- 
periments during  the  past  two  years  to  determine 
definitely  whether  there  be  any  essential  difference 
between  these  two  sugars.  The  decision  of  the  ex- 
perts is  that  there  is  no  essential  difference.  The 
claim  had  been  made  in  certain  parts  of  the  coun- 
try that  beet  sugar  is  not  so  efficient  in  its  pre- 

37 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

serving  qualities  when  nsed  in  the  manufacture  of 
jellies,  preserves,  and  canned  fruits.  The  tests  of 
the  Government  extended  not  only  to  these  prepa- 
rations but  to  a  wide  variety  of  cooked  foods,  so 
that  they  are  sufficiently  representative  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  conclusive. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  as  contained  in  honey 
is  also  increasing  rapidly  in  the  United  States. 
The  bee  culture  business  is  being  placed  on  a  more 
scientific  and  profitable  basis,  and,  whereas  honey 
was  formerly  consumed  almost  exclusively  in  the 
country,  it  is  now  becoming  a  popular  commodity 
on  the  city  market.  The  present  honey  consump- 
tion of  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  $20,000,- 
000  per  year.  To  meet  the  demand  we  are  import- 
ing 2,500,000  pounds  annually,  one  half  of  which 
comes  from  Cuba  and  one  fourth  from  IMexico. 

The  consumption  of  sirups  and  molasses  contin- 
ues to  increase,  but  is  not  increasing  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  in  population,  which  means  that 
they  are  becoming  of  relatively  less  importance  as 
national  foods.  The  consumption  is  naturally 
heaviest  in  the  cane  districts  of  the  South,  because 
of  the  cheapness  of  the  article  as  compared  with 
other  foodstuffs.  In  the  cane  belt  the  cheaper 
grades  of  molasses  are  beginning  to  be  used  exten- 
sively as  a  stock  food,  and  very  satisfactory  results 
have  been  obtained,  which  would  indicate  that  this 

38 


SUGAR   AS    A    FOOD 

utilization  will  be  much  extended  in  the  future. 
Sugar  by-products  as  a  stock  food  will  be  further 
considered  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

Refined  sugar  is  subject  to  very  little  deteriora- 
tion, since  it  is  immune  to  insect  enemies  and  is 
not  subject  to  fermentation.  This  is  not  true,  how- 
ever, of  the  raw  sugars,  for  which  reason  great  pre- 
caution should  be  exercised  in  the  consumption  of 
sugar  before  it  is  refined.  As  a  matter  of  fact  so 
little  unrefined  sugar  is  consumed  that  it  scarcely 
figures  in  the  retail  trade. 

It  is  necessary  to  prepare  sugar  in  a  variety  of 
forms  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  trade  in  the 
different  countries  of  the  earth.  The  most  com- 
mon classes  of  refined  sugar  demanded  by  the 
trade  of  this  country  are  bar,  cube,  tablet,  crys- 
tallized, coarse  granular,  medium  granular,  fine 
granular,  and  the  pulverized  grades.  The  domestic 
use  of  the  brown  or  porous  sugars  is  steadily  de- 
clining in  favor  of  the  granular  grades.  The 
brown  sugars  on  the  market  are  not  raw,  but  are 
taken  at  intermediate  stages  in  the  process  of  re- 
fining. 


CHAPTER   IV 

CONTROLLING   FACTORS   IN    THE   PRODUC- 
TION  OF   SUGAR   CANE 

Sugar  cane  is  a  native  of  the  tropics,  and  has 
yielded  but  little  to  the  coaxing  of  man  to  become 
adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  Temper- 
ate Zone.  It  has,  however,  a  wide  distribution  in 
the  tropical  and  subtropical  zones,  having  been 
grown  as  far  north  as  latitude  32°  in  Spain,  and  as 
far  south  as  latitude  37°  in  New  Zealand.  An 
average  annual  temperature  of  75°  F.,  and  a  seven 
to  nine  months'  growing  season  of  warm  days  and 
nights  afford  the  most  favorable  temperature  con- 
ditions. It  is  a  crop  which  requires  a  large  amount 
of  sunshine  and  a  bountiful  supply  of  moisture. 
This  combination  cannot  be  ideally  realized  ex- 
cept by  irrigation,  and  so  we  find  that  the  largest 
yields  of  cane  have  been  obtained  in  regions  sus- 
ceptible to  irrigation.  It  is  estimated  that  during 
the  growing  season  the  soil  should  contain  twenty- 
five  per  cent  moisture,  which  will,  under  normal 
tropical  conditions,  be  supplied  by  an  annual  rain- 

40 


FACTORS  IN  PRODUCTION  OF  SUGAR  CANE 

fall  of  50  to  65  inches.  The  distribution  of  the 
rainfall  is  as  important  as  the  aggregate  precipita- 
tion, the  most  desirable  distribution  being  a  mod- 
erate winter  rainfall,  a  generous  supply  during  the 
growing  season,  alternating  with  periods  of  clear 
skies  and  hot  sunshine,  and  a  comparatively  dry 
season  for  maturing  and  harvesting.  At  least  two 
thirds  of  the  total  precipitation  should  come  in  the 
growing  season.  One  inch  of  rainfall  on  one  acre 
amounts  to  27,154  gallons,  or  113  tons.  An  acre  of 
cane,  yielding  a  45-ton  crop,  is  estimated  to  have 
evaporated  through  the  leaves  6,400  tons  of  water, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a  rainfall  of  56  inches.  In 
the  cane  belt  of  the  United  States  the  rainfall  is 
seldom  less  than  50  inches.  The  growing  season — 
April,  May,  June,  July — has  an  average  of  more 
than  half  of  the  total  rainfall,  while  October,  No- 
vember, and  December  are  the  driest  months  of 
the  year.  The  growth  of  the  cane  crop  is  so  rapid 
that  it  requires  a  continuous  and  generous  utiliza- 
tion of  plant  foods.  An  excess  of  moisture  during 
the  growing  season  will,  therefore,  be  disastrous, 
as  it  excludes  that  admixture  of  air  which  makes 
possible  the  rapid  assimilation  of  plant  foods.  A 
rainy  season  during  the  maturing  or  ripening 
season  lowers  the  sugar  content,  makes  it  difficult 
to  separate,  and  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  is  al- 
most impossible  on  account  of  mud.    If  the  rain  is 

41 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

accompanied  by  wind  the  eJffiects  are  still  more  dis- 
astrous, as  cane  is  not  deeply  rooted,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  it  is  easily  blown  down,  and  the 
stalk  has  the  power  of  throwing  out  roots  at  each 
joint  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  earth.  An 
additional  loss  is  from  the  breaking  of  the  stalks 
at  the  joints,  where  fermentation  soon  begins. 

The  soil  adaptation  is  of  paramount  importance. 
Neither  heavy  clay  soils  nor  loose,  sandy  soils  are 
best  adai^ted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane,  since 
the  clay  soil  does  not  admit  sufficient  aeration  for 
the  rapid  assimilation  of  plant  food,  and  the  sandy 
soil  is  not  only  insufficiently  retentive  of  moisture, 
but  the  cane  rooting  in  it  is  too  weak  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  stalk.  The  fertile  loams  are, 
therefore,  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  crop. 
The  most  productive  loams  are  those  rich  in  humus 
or  decayed  vegetable  matter,  those  derived  from 
alluvial  depositions,  and  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  volcanic,  coral,  or  crystalline  rocks.  The 
decayed  vegetable  matter  has  the  effect  of  disin- 
tegrating the  soil  more  perfectly  through  the 
agency  of  its  organic  acids,  and  of  supplying  an 
abundance  of  nitrogenous  plant  foods  so  necessary 
for  the  growth  of  the  crop.  The  other  plant  foods 
most  essential  are  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
lime.  Tropical  soils  of  alluvial  origin  are  likely  to 
contain  all  the  necessary  plant  foods,  but  continued 

42 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    CANE 

cultivation  will  ultimately  exhaust  the  most  fertile 
soils  of  humus  and  potash  below  the  quantity  re- 
quired. AVhen  the  soils  become  exhausted  they  not 
only  give  an  inadequate  yield  through  an  insuf- 
ficient supply  of  plant  food,  but  become  hard  and 
impenetrable,  w^hich  makes  cultivation  difficult. 
Some  safeguard  measures  must,  in  consequence,  be 
adopted  in  the  sugar-producing  countries  to  pre- 
vent exhaustion.  The  most  effective  and  the  most 
economical  is  a  wise  rotation  of  crops  and  thorough 
cultivation.  Only  within  recent  years  have  cane 
growers  begun  to  realize  the  importance  of  restor- 
ing fertility  to  the  soil  by  this  method.  The  clovers, 
peas,  and  beans  are  the  most  important  in  the  ro- 
tation, as  they  increase  the  available  nitrogen,  and 
when  plowed  under  restore  to  the  soil  humus, 
which  has  become  deficient  through  continued  crop- 
ping in  cane  or  cereals.  The  most  popular  succes- 
sion where  rotation  is  practiced  is :  first  year,  cane 
from  planting;  second  year,  cane  from  stubble 
(rattoon  crop)  ;  and  third  year,  beans,  peas,  or  lu- 
cerne. Frequently  corn  is  planted  the  third  year 
for  the  harvest  crop,  with  beans,  peas,  or  lucerne 
sowed  at  the  last  plowing  as  a  cover  crop,  to  be 
plowed  under  after  the  corn  is  harvested. 

It  is  obvious  from  what  has  been  said  that  satis- 
factory results  cannot  be  expected  on  land  which 
is  not  well  drained.    Good  vertical  drainage  by  per- 

43 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

eolation  is  preferable  to  lateral  drainage,  but  the 
physical  condition  and  the  configuration  of  large 
areas  of  fertile  lands  adapted  to  sugar  cane  make 
either  under-drainage  or  open-ditch  drainage  nec- 
essary. The  reason  that  cane  grows  so  luxuriantly 
on  many  of  the  tropical  islands  is  the  conjunction 
of  an  abundance  of  moisture,  fertile  soil,  and  ade- 
quate natural  drainage. 

When  the  cultivation  of  cane  began  to  spread 
from  Asia  to  other  continents  the  idea  prevailed 
that  careful  cultivation  was  not  necessary.  This 
deduction  was  natural,  since  it  proj^agated  itself 
year  after  year  in  some  of  the  most  fertile  and 
favorably  situated  valleys  of  Asia.  Even  now 
there  are  a  few  small  areas  in  Porto  Rico  which 
have  yielded  fair  crops  of  cane  for  twenty  years 
without  planting,  and  under  the  most  inferior  cul- 
tivation. Too  strong  a  faith  has  been  and  is  noAV 
placed  in  the  persistence  of  the  soil  fertility,  and 
in  the  tolerance  of  the  cane  crop. 

The  labor  expended  in  thoroughly  preparing  the 
soil  for  planting  proves  an  economical  investment 
throughout  the  season,  since  it  gives  the  crop  a 
healthful  start,  and  kills  out  weeds,  which  will  go 
far  toward  tiding  the  crop  over  wet  periods  so 
likely  to  occur  in  the  spring  months.  The  plowing 
should  be  deep,  and  the  soil  reduced  by  harrowing, 
dragging,  and  rolling,  to  a  pulverulent  condition. 

44 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    CANE 

Planting  in  the  United  States  is  practiced  both  in 
the  autnmn  and  spring,  but  the  best  results  are 
believed  to  be  obtained  by  the  autumn  planting. 
On  large  plantations  it  begins  in  September,  and 
is  continued  until  the  harvesting  season  of  No- 
vember and  December.  Following  the  harvesting 
season  a  part  or  all  of  the  harvested  area  will  be 
planted  as  soon  as  the  weather  and  soil  conditions 
permit.  Autumn  planting  makes  possible  an  ear- 
lier cultivation  in  the  spring,  and  thereby  extends 
the  growing  season  in  the  months  when  the  rain- 
fall is  heaviest.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in 
autumn  planting  to  prevent  ''  wet  rot  "  from 
imperfect  drainage,  and  "  dry  rot  "  through  too 
rapid  evaporation  of  the  moisture  from  the 
planted  stalks.  The  latter  is  likely  to  occur  if  the 
land  is  rough,  cloddy,  or  rocky.  When  the  plant- 
ing is  deferred  to  spring,  the  cane  stalks  to  be 
used  in  propagating  the  next  crop  must  be  pro- 
tected against  freezing,  air  exposure,  and  water 
soaking.  This  is  done  by  piling  the  cane  in  fur- 
rows, which  are  covered  in  turn  with  dirt  taken 
from  the  sides;  or  by  standing  the  cane  on  the 
butts  in  conical  piles,  and  covering  with  dirt.  Dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  stalk  are  utilized  for  propaga- 
tion, and  in  this  country  there  seems  to  be  no 
material  difference  in  the  results  from  the  joints 
of  the  toj)   and  bottom.     Frequently  the  stubble 

45 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

is  planted  as  rapidly  as  the  cane  is  cut.  The  fur- 
rows for  receiving  the  cane  cuttings  are  made  with 
an  ordinary  two-horse  turn  plow,  or  with  culti- 
vators made  for  the  purpose.  The  rows  are  from 
three  to  six  feet  in  width,  but  the  close  planting 
has  given  more  satisfactory  results  in  Louisiana. 
If  the  rows  are  three  feet  apart  and  the  stalks  are 
planted  longitudinally,  it  requires  about  4,000 
pounds  of  cane  to  the  acre. 

During  the  first  of  the  growing  season  the  bat- 
tle is  on  between  the  cane  and  the  weeds,  and  the 
victory  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  cul- 
tivation. The  kind  of  soil  required  for  a  profitable 
cane  crop  is  ideally  adapted  to  the  most  rapid 
growth  of  weeds.  The  same  is  true  as  to  condi- 
tions of  temperature  and  moisture.  The  disc  cul- 
tivators have  now  an  extensive  use.  They  are  so 
set  as  to  throw  the  soil  to  the  cane  row,  which  cov- 
ers the  weeds  in  the  row,  gives  the  cane  a  deeper 
rooting,  facilitates  drainage,  and  preserves  the 
stubble  if  to  be  used  for  propagating  the  next  crop. 
Cane  should  receive  its  last  cultivation  early  in 
July.  Following  the  lay-by  the  crop  makes  rapid 
growth  if  the  season  is  favorable.  The  length  of 
the  growing  season  is  determined  by  the  climatic 
conditions,  the  time  of  planting,  the  variety  of 
cane,  and  the  amount  of  space  allotted  to  each 
parent  stalk. 

46 


FACTORS    IX    PRODUCTIOX    OF    SUGAR    CANE 

Cane,  like  all  the  grasses,  branches  by  producing 
suckers  at  the  crown  of  the  root.  This  process  is 
known  as  tilleiing,  and  where  a  maximum  tillering 
is  desired  wide  planting  must  be  practiced.  Some 
varieties  possess  a  greater  tillering  tendency  than 
others,  and  the  greater  the  number  of  suckers  the 
longer  the  season  required  for  maturing  the  crop. 
As  many  as  one  hundred  stalks  have  been  pro- 
duced by  one  joint  of  cane  containing  three  eyes, 
planted  in  a  space  six  feet  square.  The  wider  the 
planting,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  suck- 
ers, but  the  suckers  are  less  rich  in  sugar  and 
smaller  in  size  than  stalks  from  original  sprouts, 
so  that  the  repression  of  suckering,  or  tillering,  is 
desirable  in  the  propagating  stock.  This  is  most 
successfully  effected  by  close  planting  and  by  close 
cultivating.  The  cultivations  during  May  and 
June  should  be  at  frequent  intervals  and  shallow 
so  as  to  produce  that  condition  of  tilth  so  favorable 
to  thorough  aeration,  moisture  conservation,  rapid 
nitrification,  and  well-balanced  assimilation  of 
plant  foods. 

August  and  September  are  the  important  matur- 
ing months,  during  which  the  crop  receives  no  cul- 
tivation. During  this  period  the  canals  used  for 
conveying  the  nutrition-charged  waters  from  the 
roots  to  the  leaves  become  less  active,  and  the 
sieve    tubes,    for    conveying    nutrition    from    the 

47 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 


leaves  downward  to  the  stalk,  become  more  active. 
A  dry  season  is  favorable  during  the  last  stages  of 
maturing,  as  a  part  of  the  water  contained  in  the 
plant  is  consumed  to  meet  the  deficiency  from  soil 
moisture,  which  leaves  the  sap  correspondingly 
richer  in  sugar  content.    As  the  stalks  mature  they 


(-4. 


J^ 


Cutting  Cane. 

shed  their  leaves  from  the  bottom  upward,  which  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  during  the  maturing,  or  sugar- 
fixing  stage,  the  water  canals  connecting  the  stalks 
and  leaves  are  closed  so  as  to  divert  the  plant  food 
from  the  leaf  to  the  stalk.  The  shedding  of  the 
leaves  is  heralded  by  a  gradual  change  in  the  color 

48 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    CANE 

of  the  joints  from  a  green  to  some  shade  of  red, 
differing  in  different  varieties.  The  cane  in  the 
Gulf  States  is  not  ready  for  cutting  for  four  to 
six  weeks  following  the  beginning  of  the  change 
in  color.  Although  harvesting  begins  in  October 
on  account  of  the  large  crops  and  apprehension  of 
unfavorable  weather,  the  cane  is  not  in  the  best 
condition  until  November.  The  cane  is  cut  by 
hand,  no  successful  harvesting  machine  having  yet 
been  invented.  This  makes  a  heavy  demand  for 
labor  during  the  cutting  season,  as  a  good  cutter 
can  average  no  more  than  three  tons  per  day, 
AYhen  the  crop  is  unusually  large  or  late,  the  cane 
is  frequently  cut  and  piled  in  rows  for  protection 
against  frost  and  freezing.  Freezing  does  not  ma- 
terially damage  the  quality  or  quantity  of  sugar 
if  it  is  milled  before  thawing,  but  to  freeze  and 
thaw  is  very  destructive  to  the  sugar,  and  fermen- 
tation sets  up  immediately.  Cane  juice  contains 
about  seventy  per  cent  of  water,  and  in  freezing 
the  pressure  of  expansion  is  sufficient  to  break  the 
cell  walls,  which  causes  the  intermingling  of  the 
vegetable  and  mineral  contents. 

Rats  are  very  destructive  to  grooving  sugar  cane, 
since  wherever  they  gnaw  the  stalk  fermentation 
occurs.  AYliite  ants  are  great  enemies  in  the  trop- 
ics where  rattoon  crops  are  extensively  cultivated, 
but  have  caused  little  loss  in  the  United  States. 
5  49 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  most  serious  insect  enemies  in  this  coun- 
try are  the  "  sugar-cane  borer  "  {Diatroea  sac- 
charalis),  the  ''  Southern  grass  worm  "  (of  the 
order  Lepidoptera) ,  and  the  "  sugar-cane  beetle  " 
{Ligyms  rugiceps).  To  avoid  the  ravages  of  the 
borer  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  burn- 
ing the  tops,  thus  destroying  most  of  the  hibernat- 
ing young.  It  has  few  natural  enemies.  The 
ground  beetles  in  both  the  larval  and  adult  stages 
feed  on  the  grass  worms,  which  keeps  them  fairly 
in  subjection. 

Many  varieties  of  cane  from  all  parts  of  the  cane- 
growing  world  have  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States  experimentally,  but  none  have  been 
found  of  sufficient  adaptability  and  superiority  to 
supplant  the  ribbon  or  striped  cane  introduced 
into  Georgia  and  Louisiana  in  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  striped  canes  have  a 
tendency  to  change  to  the  violet  or  purple  variety, 
particularly  in  the  northern  portion  of  our  cane 
belt.  As  evidence  that  it  is  a  degenerative  form 
of  the  striped  cane,  it  is  hardei,  has  more  fiber, 
more  solids  not  sugar,  greater  average  reproductive 
power,  and  more  resistant  to  changes  of  temper- 
ature. 

The  margin  of  risk  to  the  cane  grower  is  much 
smaller  than  it  would  be  if  cane  were  propagated 
by  seed,  and  susceptible  to  great  variation  from 

50 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    CANE 

local  differences  or  changes  of  environment.  This 
margin  is  not  so  small,  however,  as  it  was  once  be- 
lieved to  be,  when  ten  to  twenty-five  crops  were 
produced  from  one  planting.  It  is  now  known  that 
each  succeeding  rattoon  (propagated  from  stub- 
ble) crop  shows  a  deterioration  under  its  prede- 
cessor. 

The  greatest  problem  which  faces  the  cane  and 
beet  growers  of  this  country  is  the  labor  supply, 
since  the  cost  of  production  to  the  grower  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  efficiency  and  cost  of  the  laborers. 
Both  crops  require  much  hand  labor,  and  both  de- 
mand a  disproportional  amount  of  labor  during 
the  planting  and  harvesting  seasons.  Because  of 
farm  wages  being  higher  in  the  United  States  than 
in  any  other  sugar-producing  country,  the  condi- 
tions of  competition  stand  at  high  tension,  and  few 
agricultural  crops  are  so  vitally  dependent  upon 
minor  fluctuations  in  the  cost  of  production  as  fixed 
by  the  cost  of  labor.  The  competition  is  both  in- 
ternal and  external,  and  of  a  complicated  type,  since 
it  involves  specific  competition  between  cane  and 
beet  sugar  under  varying  conditions  of  production 
in  the  continental  United  States,  in  the  noncontigu- 
ous territory,  and  in  foreign  countries;  and  a  gen- 
eral competition  between  domestic  and  foreign 
production.  Although  the  labor  scale  in  the  beet- 
producing   zone   of   the   United   States   is  higher 

51 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

than  in  the  cane  belt  the  relative  cost  of  producing 
the  two  crops  is  about  the  same.  The  average 
sugar-cane  production  is  16  tons  per  acre,  which 
sells  at  an  average  price  of  $3.50  per  ton;  while 
the  average  production  of  beets  is  8  to  10  tons  per 
acre,  and  the  average  factory  price  $4.75  to  $5.50 
per  ton.  The  losses  incident  to  cane  cultivation 
are  greater,  since  more  than  three  fourths  of  our 
total  beet  crop  is  produced  in  the  arid  and  semi- 
arid  states  by  irrigation.  The  beet  crop  is  also 
more  susceptible  to  machine  cultivation,  so  that 
the  domestic  beet  grower  competes  on  fairly  equal 
economic  conditions  with  his  brother  cane  grower 
in  the  South.  The  average  cost  of  producing  a  ton 
of  beets  is  $3,  or  $30  per  acre,  on  the  basis  of  $1.25 
per  day  per  laborer ;  while  the  average  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a  ton  of  cane  is  $2.00  to  $3.00,  on  the  basis 
of  $1  per  day  per  laborer. 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  inability  of  this 
country  to  compete  with  other  sugar-producing 
countries,  without  a  tariff  on  sugar  imports.  The 
question  is  naturally  asked,  how  could  the  United 
States  grow  cane  in  competition  with  Java,  where 
farm  wages  range  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents 
per  day ;  or  how  could  we  grow  beets  in  competition 
with  Germany,  where  farm  wages  are  at  least  fifty 
per  cent  lower.  Neither  our  experience  of  the  past 
decade  nor  the  analysis  of  the  sugar  facts  in  other 

52 


FACTORS    IX    PKODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    CANE 

countries  justify  the  conclusions  of  the  ultra-protec- 
tionist or  of  the  imaginary  free  trader.  The  ad- 
mission of  sugar  from  cheap-labor  countries  on  a 
preferential  tariff  rate  has  not  depressed  the  do- 
mestic production  of  sugar  so  much  as  the  feeling 
of  suspense  and  danger  thrust  upon  the  country 
by  the  uncertainty  of  the  governmental  policies 
with  reference  to  the  sugar  tariff.  As  to  the  in- 
fluence on  the  wholesale  or  retail  price,  it  is  worthy 
of  note  that  the  price  in  London  varies  but  little 
from  that  of  New  York,  and  yet  the  English  duty 
on  imported  sugar  is  less  than  one  fourth  that  of 
the  United  States.  In  estimating  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction the  efficiency  and  stability  of  the  laborer 
is  more  important  than  the  absolute  wage  rate,  and 
the  price  of  the  finished  product  to  the  consumer 
is  determined  by  a  number  of  factors  in  addition 
to  the  cost  of  the  laborers  employed. 

There  is  now  a  marked  tendency  to  the  enlarge- 
ment and  concentration  of  factory  enterprises  in 
the  cane  belt.  This  is  made  necessary  by  the  in- 
stallation of  modern  factory  equipment,  which,  to 
be  placed  on  a  profitable  basis,  must  be  for  the 
production  of  a  large  output.  As  a  result  the 
transportation  problem  has  become  a  more  difficult 
and  a  more  expensive  one  to  the  cane  grower. 
Only  the  largest  plantations  have  improved  facili- 
ties for  the  conveyance  of  the  crop  to  the  mill,  this 

53 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

being  in  most  cases  dummy  railroad  lines.  The 
modern  system,  however,  works  to  the  advantage  of 
the  small  grower,  since  the  percentage  of  extraction 
by  the  best  grinding  processes  in  use  at  this  time 
is  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent  in  excess  of  that 
obtained  by  the  old  system,  when  the  grinding  was 
done  by  the  grower.  The  old  horse-power  mills 
extracted  forty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  juice,  and 
even  now  about  twenty  per  cent  remains  in  the 
stalks  as  they  come  from  the  rollers ;  but  the  value 
of  the  increased  yield  more  than  covers  the  total 
cost  of  transporting  the  crop  from  the  field  to  the 
factories. 

The  geographic  situation  of  the  cane-growing 
districts  with  reference  to  water  and  rail  transpor- 
tation, and  with  reference  to  the  refining  and  mar- 
ket centers,  are  important  conditions  in  determin- 
ing the  ability  of  a  region  to  compete  on  a  prof- 
itable basis.  The  producing  zone  in  the  United 
States  is  limited  to  the  Gulf  States  in  which  the 
facilities  for  cheap  water  transportation  are  unex- 
celled, and  all  parts  are  admirably  served  by  the 
more  rapid  railroad  facilities.  All  parts  of  the  belt 
are  also  easily  accessible  to  the  large  refining  cen- 
ters, New  Orleans,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
Baltimore,  which  are  also  the  most  important  mar- 
ket centers.  The  cheaper  water  transportation  is 
available  since  the  distance  from  any  of  the  Gulf 

54 


I 


FACTORS  IN  PRODUCTION  OF  SUGAR  CANE 

ports  to  any  of  the  Atlantic  ports  is  not  such  as  to 
occasion  loss  in  the  shipment  of  raw  sugar  in  cargo 
lots.  Because  of  the  accessibility  of  the  cane  belt 
to  the  largest  cities  and  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated States  gives  cane  this  appreciable  advantage 
over  the  more  remote  beet-producing  areas  of  the 
West. 

Sugar  cane  can  hold  its  place  in  any  given  re- 
gion only  so  long  as  it  is  the  most  profitable  crop. 
Already  it  has  been  supplanted  in  portions  of  the 
Gulf  States  by  tobacco,  cotton,  rice,  fruits,  and 
vegetables;  and  the  economic  selection  in  the  fu- 
ture is  certain  to  be  more  discriminating  than  it 
has  been  in  the  past. 

The  cane  belt  has  no  greater  need  than  the  gen- 
eral introduction  and  practice  of  diversified  agri- 
culture, or  the  judicious  rotation  of  crops.  As 
astounding  and  unnatural  as  it  may  seem,  the  one 
crop  system  is  still  in  vogue,  not  only  in  a  large 
part  of  the  cane  belt  but  also  in  the  cotton-growing 
regions.  We  can  take  courage  since  diversified 
production  has  gained  ground  more  rapidly  dur- 
ing the  past  five  years.  Intelligence,  decrease  in 
the  ''  one-crop  "  yield,  and  misfortune  are  driving 
the  issue.  The  delta  planters  stood  unmoved  until 
the  sixty-per-cent  cane  crop  of  1898,  and  the  sub- 
sequent arrival  of  the  boll  weevil.  One  planter  in 
the  Yazoo  delta  writes  that  the  boll  weevil  did  not 

55 


•» 

3 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

strike  him  until  last  year,  but  succeeded  in  reduc- 
ing his  cotton  crop  from  $35,000  to  $11,000;  and 
that,  as  a  result,  he  has  under  cultivation  this  year 
30  acres  of  cotton,  compared  with  700  last  year, 
300  acres  of  corn,  and  50  acres  of  broom  corn. 

The  adoption  of  diversified  agriculture  will  have 
the  effect  of  decentralizing  the  sugar-cane  industry, 
of  increasing  the  acreage  yield,  and  of  so  fostering 
home  industries — agricultural  and  manufacturing 
— as,  to  lessen  the  risks  and  ameliorate  the  losses 
from  adverse  weather  conditions,  insect  blight,  and 
market  depressions. 


\ 


CHAPTER   V 

SUGAR   CANE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Of  the  staple  agricultural  crops  sugar  cane  was 
one  of  the  last  to  be  launched  successfully.  Ce- 
reals, fruits,  vegetables,  cotton,  and  tobacco  had 
been  profitably  cultivated  by  the  Americans  for 
more  than  a  century  prior  to  the  introduction  of 
sugar  cane,  and  after  its  introduction  more  than 
a  half  century  elapsed  before  the  cane-sugar  indus- 
try was  more  than  experimental.  It  is  impossible 
to  discuss  all  of  the  reasons  which  led  to  this  situa- 
tion, but  it  is  obvious  that,  from  the  standpoint  of 
an  open  market  and  a  constant  demand,  the  manu- 
facture of  domestic  sugar  was  desirable.  It  must  be 
remembered  that,  until  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  Florida  and  Louisiana  were  under 
the  control  of  the  Spanish  and  the  French,  but  the 
trade  relations  between  these  nations  and  England 
continued  amicable  to  the  extent  of  commercial  ex- 
change, until  our  war  for  independence,  and  even 
until  the  acquisition  of  this  southern  coastal  terri- 

57 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

tory  by  the  new  republic.  The  Spanish,  French, 
and  Portuguese  were  active  in  exploiting  the  culti- 
vation of  sugar  cane  in  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic 
and  in  South  America.  It  was  not,  therefore,  be- 
cause the  nations  concerned  were  averse  to  extend- 
ing the  industry  to  this  part  of  their  producing 
and  trading  domain.  Sugar  was  also  a  very  ac- 
ceptable commodity  in  the  European  trade,  eco- 
nomically fitted  for  a  return  cargo  on  the  ships 
engaged  in  the  traffic  of  slaves,  and  all  the  nations 
active  in  the  sugar  trade  were  exploiting  the  Afri- 
can slave  trade.  There  was  also  the  inducement 
of  a  large  domestic  demand  since  the  British  colo- 
nists, and  later  the  states  of  the  Union,  were  de- 
pendent on  the  importation  of  sugar  from  the 
East  and  West  Indies. 

Remembering  that  the  commercial  production 
of  sugar  in  this  country  did  not  become  impor- 
tant until  after  1825,  let  us  consider  some  of  the 
handicaps  in  the  way  of  a  more  successful  develop- 
ment. The  absence  of  a  cane  adapted  to  the  Gulf 
region,  and  ignorance  as  to  methods  of  cultivation 
and  manufacture  must  be  recognized  as  the  funda- 
mental barriers  which  existed  throughout  the  eight- 
eenth century.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  con- 
Aversion  of  cane  juice  into  sugar  began  to  be  success- 
ful in  1796,  but  a  well-adapted  variety  of  cane 
w^as  not  introduced  until  twenty-five  years  later. 

58 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Very  early  in  the  Spanish  and  French  coloniza- 
tion in  America  indigo  became  an  important  crop, 
and  a  staple  commodity  of  trade.  This  was  the 
leading  agricultural  export  from  Louisiana  and 
Florida  as  late  as  1790.  It  seemed  also  impossible 
to  obtain  a  labor  supply  which  was  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  cane.  The  problem  was  not  simply 
one  of  cultivation,  for  the  lands  best  adapted  to 
the  crop  were  not  only  veritable  wildernesses,  but 
almost  uninhabitable  to  the  white  man  from  the 
standpoint  of  climate  and  disease.  The  largest 
crops  could  be  harvested  from  the  fertile  loams  of 
the  valleys,  but  the  utilization  of  these  transgressed 
upon  the  fishing  grounds  of  the  Indians.  These 
natural  enemies  could  be  overcome  but  slowly,  and 
the  Spanish  and  French  personnel  of  these  southern 
colonies  was  not  calculated  to  make  a  determined 
and  aggressive  industrial  attack.  With  the  clear- 
ing and  draining  of  the  land  the  fatalities  from 
disease  decreased,  and  the  Indians  were  steadily 
driven  farther  back  into  the  wilderness.  Follow- 
ing 1795,  the  insect  ravages  on  the  indigo  plant 
became  so  destructive  as  to  threaten  this  profitable 
crop,  which  made  it  all  the  more  necessary  to  look 
to  other  sources  of  revenue.  The  French  were  es- 
pecially interested  in  the  tobacco  trade  and  encour- 
aged it  in  Louisiana,  but  the  tobacco  grown  was 
inferior  in  quality,  which  prevented  a  rapid  exten- 

59 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

sion  of  its  cultivation.  Up  to  this  time  cotton 
had  not  been  considered  profitable  for  export,  as  is 
clearly  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  1790  the 
United  States  supplied  England  with  only  one 
sixth  of  one  per  cent  of  her  cotton  imports.  Be- 
sides, the  cultivation  of  cotton  began  in  southern 
Virginia,  the  northern  limit  of  the  cotton  belt,  and 
extended  southward,  so  that  it  had  only  reached 
Florida  and  Louisiana  in  its  experimental  stage. 
Following  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  in  1791, 
the  cultivation  of  cotton  increased  with  phenome- 
nal rapidity,  and  soon  became  the  most  popular 
and  profitable  crop  in  the  export  trade.  With  the 
acquisition  of  Florida  by  the  United  States  in 
1819  the  cultivation  was  soon  extended  to  the  Gulf 
Coast  as  far  west  as  Texas. 

In  1821  cane  growing  received  a  new  impulse 
through  the  introduction  into  Louisiana  of  the 
striped,  or  ribbon  cane,  which  provixl  to  be  much 
better  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  Gulf 
Coast  than  the  Creole  variety.  The  production  in 
Louisiana  by  1825  reached  11,000  tons,  and  ten 
years  later  it  was  51,000  tons,  which  during  the 
next  ten  years  was  exactly  doubled,  and  by  1855 
had  reached  the  encouraging  status  of  177,000 
tons.  The  Civil  War  naturally  paralyzed  the  cane 
industry,  together  with  all  other  industries  in  the 
South.    The  total  production  in  Louisiana  in  1865 

60 


SUGAR    CANE    IX    THE    UXITED    STATES 

was  but  little  more  than  5,000  tons.  The  status 
of  the  industry  preceding  the  War  was  most  en- 
couraging. Almost  every  grower  of  cane  had  his 
small  sugar  house,  the  number  of  sugar  houses  in 
1850  being  1,490,  which  produced  151,000  tons  of 


HoPETON  Sugar  Plant  as  It  Appeared  in  1899. 
Erected   by  James   Hamilton   Couper  in   1829. 

sugar.  The  great  changes  which  have  evolved  sub- 
sequently in  the  distribution  of  factories  becomes 
ajDparent  when  we  consider  that  in  1908  there  were 
only  200  factories  in  the  state,  which  produced 
335,000  tons  of  sugar.  Following  the  Civil  AA'ar 
sugar  was  able  to  regain  its  position  but  slowly 
on  account  of  the  great  demand  for  cotton,  which 
made  it  the  most  profitable  crop  in  the  Southern 

61 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

States.  We  find,  accordingly,  that  in  1875  the 
Louisiana  sugar  crop  was  only  60,000  tons,  this 
being  but  little  more  than  one  third  of  the  1855 
crop.  Not  until  1890  did  sugar  cane  regain  the 
position  it  held  from  1850  to  1860.  About  400,000 
acres  are  now  cultivated  in  cane,  and  the  acreage 
is  increasing  each  year.  It  is  capable  of  almost 
unlimited  extension  since  more  than  10,000,000 
acres  are  reported  as  admirably  adapted  to  the 
profitable  cultivation  of  cane.  Much  of  this  land, 
however,  which  is  capable  of  producing  enormous 
crops  of  cane,  is  also  well  adapted  to  rice  and  cot- 
ton. In  recent  years  the  rice  crop  has  made  in- 
roads on  the  cane  area  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  this 
having  been  brought  about  chiefly  by  the  success- 
ful use  of  wheat  harvesting  machinery  in  harvest- 
ing the  rice  crop.  Louisiana  has  373,866  acres  in 
rice,  and  in  the  leading  rice  centers  sugar-cane 
production  is  waning.  Calcasieu  Parish  has  more 
than  one  third  of  the  total  rice  acreage  and  only 
480  acres  in  cane. 

The  fertile  soils  of  the  Louisiana  cane  belt  pro- 
duce twenty  to  forty  tons  of  cane  per  acre.  The  fac- 
tories pay  for  this  product  from  eighty  cents  to  one 
dollar  per  ton  for  each  cent  per  pound  commanded 
by  the  prime  yellow  clarified  sugar  on  the  New 
Orleans  market.  One  ton  of  cane  under  the  pres- 
ent process  of  economic  milling  and  manufacture 

62 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

yields  160  pounds  of  sugar.  Under  the  old  meth- 
ods 50  pounds  per  ton  was  considered  a  satisfac- 
tory yield. 

The  cultivation  at  this  time  is  concentrated  in 
the  central  coastal  counties  of  the  state,  where  the 
soil  is  a  deep  fertile  loam,  the  moisture  conditions 


Field  of  Sugar  Cane,  East  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

always  favorable,  and  the  rainfall  adequate  for  a 
maximum  production.  St.  Mary's  Parish  leads 
with  85,577  acres;  Iberia  is  second,  40,000  acres; 
Assumption,  third,  35,655  acres;  and  Lafourche, 
fourth,  33,000  acres.  Although  there  has  been  a 
great  advance  in  the  method  of  cultivation  and  in 
the  betterment  of  mill  facilities,  there  is  yet  room 
for  great  improvement,  particularly  in  the  meth- 

63 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

ods  of  cultivation.  One  of  the  most  urgent  de- 
mands for  improving  the  cane  production  in  the 
Southern  cane  belt  is  the  establishment  of  adequate 
drainage.  Although  cane  is  a  crop  which  requires 
a  large  amount  of  moisture,  it  must  also  have  supe- 
rior drainage  for  best  results,  so  as  to  permit  the 
free  access  of  air  into  the  soil.  The  drainage  is  in 
most  regions  effected  by  plowing  the  land  in  such 
a  way  as  to  leave  it  in  ridges.  The  cultivation  is 
then  continued  through  the  season  so  as  to  per- 
petuate the  open  furrows.  The  flood  waters  carry 
so  much  silt  that  underground  drainage  is  expen- 
sive and  difficult,  because  of  the  heavy  deposition 
of  silt  from  the  waters  flowing  into  the  pipes.  The 
sugar  zone  can  be  extended  inland,  as  the  typical 
yellow  pine  belt  affords  a  cane  crop  which  is  even 
richer  in  sugar  content  than  the  coastal  cane,  but 
smaller  in  the  tonnage  yield.  The  Louisiana  cane 
averages  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent  sugar,  this 
being  somewhat  below  the  average  of  Florida 
grown  cane,  and  five  to  seven  per  cent  below  the 
average  of  the  Cuban  crop. 

The  possibility  of  extending  the  sugar  cane  area 
in  Louisiana  and  other  coastal  states  by  swamp 
drainage  is  worthy  of  consideration.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  at  least  5,000,000  acres  of. 
fertile  land  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley  sur- 
rounding  New    Orleans    which    is    susceptible    to 

64 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

reclamation.  This  soil  when  drained  produces 
enormous  yields  of  cane,  cotton,  or  corn.  The  accu- 
mulation of  humus  has  progressed  with  the  ac- 
cumulation of  silt  from  the  periodic  overflows  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  giving  it  a  balanced  fertility 
of  mineral  and  vegetable  matter  not  excelled  in  any 
other  region  in  the  world.  Louisiana  and  Florida 
are  leading  in  the  promotion  of  drainage  reclama- 
tion, and  the  rapid  rise  in  the  price  of  land  will 
greatly  stimulate  the  Government  and  individual 
activities  in  extending  the  area  of  cultivation. 
On  the  reclaimed  swamp  lands  sugar  and  rice  are 
the  most  profitable  crops. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  State  of  Lou- 
isiana is  spending  more  money  in  investigating  the 
problems  connected  with  domestic  sugar  produc- 
tion than  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  Not  only 
is  this  experimental  work  telling  most  favorably  on 
the  production  in  the  state,  but  the  other  cane- 
growing  countries  of  the  world  are  adopting  many 
methods  which  had  their  origin  in  this  state.  Since 
1885  the  average  acreage  yield  of  cane  in  Louis- 
iana has  been  doubled,  and  great  hope  is  now 
entertained  for  the  early  development  of  a  cane 
which  will  be  better  suited  to  the  region  than  those 
which  have  been  used  since  the  industry  was  first 
established  on  a  commercial  basis. 

The  sugar-cane  industry  is  being  developed  rap- 
6  65 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

idly  at  present  in  the  Red  River  Valley,  the  larger 
planting  being  stimulated  by  the  disaster  which 
has  come  to  the  cotton  crops  of  the  region  through 
the  boll  weevil.  This  valley  was  a  very  important 
cane-growing  region  prior  to  the  Civil  War,  but 
during  the  war  the  sugar  and  sirup  houses  were 
burned,  and  the  high  price  of  cotton  immediately 
following  the  war  enabled  the  cotton  crop  to 
supplant  sugar  cane,  which  had  been  the  original 
money  industry  of  the  region. 

Cane  has  never  been  grown  extensively  in  Flor- 
ida for  purposes  of  sugar  manufacture,  but  a  con- 
siderable acreage  is  planted  for  the  manufacture  of 
sirup.  More  sugar  was  manufactured  there  from 
1830  to  1860  than  has  been  manufactured  subse- 
quently. As  in  the  case  of  Louisiana,  cane  was 
only  grown  experimentally  in  Florida  prior  to 
1825.  In  1850,  which  is  the  first  official  record  of 
the  production,  Florida  produced  1,650  tons  of 
sugar,  which  by  1870  had  declined  to  571  tons. 
The  1899  crop  was  only  142  tons.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  cane  sirup  Florida  ranks  third,  having 
produced  in  1899  1,687,000  gallons.  The  climate 
and  soil  in  most  parts  of  the  state  are  admirably 
adapted  to  the  production  of  sugar,  the  acreage 
yield  varying  from  twenty  to  thirty  tons,  and  the 
sugar  content  from  eighteen  to  twenty  per  cent. 
The  higher  sugar  content  of  Florida  cane  over  Lou- 

66 


SUGAR  CAXE  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES 

isiana  cane  is  probably  attributable  to  the  longer 
season,  since  the  crop  is  not  harvested  until  De- 
cember ;  whereas  in  Georgia  and  Louisiana,  the  har- 
vesting begins  early  in  NoA^ember.  Since  the  acqui- 
sition of  Florida  from  the  Spanish  in  1819  the  sugar 
industry  has  not  gained  ground  there,  as  might 
have  been  expected  from  its  climatic  adaptation 
and  geographic  situation,  chiefly  because  of  the 
strong  competition  of  other  crops,  which  were 
either  more  profitable  or  better  suited  to  the  labor 
conditions  of  the  country.  Prior  to  the  Civil  War 
the  cotton  crop  was  rapidly  extended  in  Florida, 
and  this  became  even  more  profitable  with  the 
introduction  of  Sea  Island  cotton.  Under  the 
stimulus  of  the  great  industrial  development  in 
the  Eastern  States  the  seaboard  cities  increased 
in  population  with  phenomenal  rapidity,  which 
brought  to  Florida  the  opportunity  of  reaping 
large  profits  from  winter  vegetables  and  fruits. 
Within  more  recent  years,  the  Cuban  and  Suma- 
tran  tobaccos  have  been  grown  there  with  such  suc- 
cess that  the  tobacco  industry  bids  fair  to  compete 
successfully  with  the  already  firmly  established 
industries  of  cotton  growing;  fruit  growing,  and 
trucking.  Since  all  of  these  crops  are  becoming 
more  profitable  each  year,  and  since  there  is  little 
hope  of  larger  profits  in  cane  cultivation,  except 
by  increasing  the  production,  the  present  prospect 

67 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

is  that  sugar  cane  will  continue  to  decline  in  Flor- 
ida, in  favor  of  more  profitable  crops. 

The  cultivation  of  cane  in  Georgia  was  begun 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  last  century,  but  the  suc- 
cess there  was  even  less  than  in  Louisiana  and 
Florida.  Small  shipments  of  cane  sugar  were 
made  as  early  as  1825,  but  the  crop  increased  but 
little  on  account  of  the  larger  profits  realized  on 
cotton  and  rice.  The  acreage  yield  in  Georgia 
compares  favorably  with  that  of  the  Gulf  Coastal 
States,  but  the  growing  season  is  not  sufficiently 
long  to  enable  the  cane  to  mature  and  then  have 
time  to  mill  it  before  the  first  frosts.  The  upland 
region  of  Georgia  produces  a  cane  which  is  richer 
in  sugar  than  that  of  the  alluvial  lowlands  and  val- 
leys. This  is  because  of  the  better  drainage,  of 
the  drier  maturing  season,  which,  together  Avith 
the  conditions  of  less  fertility,  make  the  crop  ma- 
ture earlier  and  in  a  shorter  growing  period. 

The  total  sugar  production  of  South  Carolina  in 
1850  was  985  tons;  in  1870,  386  tons;  while  that  of 
1899  was  only  114  tons.  The  manufacture  of  cane 
sirup  is,  however,  increasing,  the  total  output  be- 
ing, in  1880,  1,565,000  gallons,  as  compared  with 
3,226,000  gallons  in  1899.  This  gives  the  state  first 
rank  in  the  produce-ion  of  cane  sirup,  Alabama  be- 
ing second  with  a  production  of  2,672,000  gallons. 

Sugar-cane  cultivation  is  increasing  rapidly  in 

68 


SUGAR    CANE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Texas,  the  production  in  1899  being  1,394  tons, 
while  that  of  1909  was  15,000  tons.  Cane  growing 
is  confined  at  present  chiefly  in  the  lower  valley 
of  the  Brazos  River,  with  Fort  Bend  County 
as  the  largest  producer.  The  prospects  are  that 
the  cane  crop  will  continue  to  be  developed  in  this 
great  state,  particularly  in  the  coastal  region. 
Since  its  zone  will  be  limited  chiefly  to  within  a 
hundred  miles  of  the  coast,  it  will  have  to  compete 
with  cotton,  rice,  fruits,  and  vegetables.  In  fact, 
the  conditions  of  competition  in  this  belt  are  more 
like  those  existing  in  Florida  than  elsewhere.  The 
remoteness   of  the   region   from   large   population 


TABLE  III 

Relative  Status  of  the   Southern   States  in  the  Pro- 
duction OF  Sugar  Cane,  1850-1908 


1850 

1870 

States 

Sugar  in 
Tons 

Molasses 

and  Sirup  in 

Gallons 

Sugar  in 
Tons 

Molasses 

and  Sirup  in 

Gallons 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Florida 

Georgia 

So.  Carolina. .  - 
Mississippi .... 

Alabama 

Arkansas  

(2,200  lbs.) 

102,727 

3,341 

1,250 

746 

304 

176 

3,746 

10,931,177 

441,638 

352,893 

216,150 

15,904 

18,318 

83,428 

18 

704 

(2,200  lbs.) 

36,684 

918 

432 

292 

479 

22 

14 

41 

15 

640 

4,585,150 
246,062 
344,339 
553,192 
436,882 
152,164 
166,009 
72,008 
33,888 

No.  Carolina.  . 
Tennessee  .... 

112 

69 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 


TABLE   III— Continued 

Relative  Status  of  the  Southern  States  in  the 
Production  of  Sugar  Cane 

1890 


States 


Louisiana 

Texas 

Florida 

Georgia      .  •    .  . 
South  Carolina  . 
Mississippi    .  .  . 

Alabama    

Arkansas      .    - 
North  Carolina. 
Tennessee  . .      . 

Louisiana    .... 

Texas 

Florida    

Georgia 

South  Carolina 
Mississippi  ... 
Alabama  . .  . . 
Arkansas  . .  . 
North  Carolina 
Tennessee 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Florida 

Georgia 

South  Carolina. 
Mississippi .... 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

North  Carolina 
Tennessee 


Sugar  in 
Tons 


(2,200  lbs.) 

132,774 

2,491 

769 

594 

99 

30 

177 


1900 

145,075 

1,267 

129 

103 

44 

8 

6 

0 


1907-8 

335,000 

11,818 

3 

*1 


Molasses 

and  Sirup  in 

Gallons 


14,341,081 
2,159,339 
1,441,744 
3,223,194 
386,615 
1,524,024 
2,333,231 


14,184,733 

987,587 

1,687,452 

3,226,367 

805,064 

1,413,219 

2,672,438 

44,819 

1,957 


2,398,000 
*320,322 


Acreage 


193,694 
16,284 

9,345 
20,238 

3,305 
12,694 
19,415 


276,966 
17,851 
13,800 
26,066 
7,342 
11,352 
32,871 
460 


7,307 


*  1905-6. 
70 


SUGAR  CAXE  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES 

centers  makes  the  diversity  of  cultivation  less  than 
it  would  otherwise  be.  AYith  the  completion  of 
the  Panama  Canal  and  the  continued  development 
of  the  vast  and  varied  resources  of  the  Southern 
States  it  may  not  be  visionary  to  anticipate  the 
time  when  all  of  this  cane  belt  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Florida  Peninsula  will  be 
called  upon  to  feed  a  city  population  of  many 
millions,  in  which  event  the  profits  from  fruits  and 
vegetables  would  become  so  large  on  land  adapted 
to  them  as  to  cause  a  decentralization  of  sugar-cane 
culture,  and  give  it  a  hard  struggle  for  existence 
in  the  present  intensive  sugar-cane  belt. 


CHAPTER   VI 
SUGAR   CANE   IN   OTHER   COUNTRIES 

HAWAII 

When  Captain  Cook  visited  this  group  of  is- 
lands in  1778,  he  found  sugar  cane  growing  wild 
in  the  lowlands,  and  cultivated  on  the  uplands 
by  the  natives.  They  made  no  use  of  it  in  the 
manufacture  of  sugar,  but  used  it  in  the  raw  state 
as  a  food.  The  first  commercial  factory  was 
erected  in  1835  by  Ladd  &  Company  at  Koloa,  on 
the  island  of  Kauai.  The  export  of  1837  amounted 
to  only  $300,  but  other  mills  were  constructed  and 
the  18J:0  export  amounted  to  $18,000.  The  experi- 
ment, however,  did  not  prove  a  commercial  suc- 
cess until  1858,  when  steam  power  and  the  modern 
vacuum  pans  were  introduced.  The  high  price  of 
sugar  during  the  Civil  War  greatly  stimulated  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  in  the  islands.  It  received 
further  impulse  from  the  reciprocity  treaty  with 
the  United  States  in  1876,  which  practically  cre- 
ated free-trade  relations.     The  last  quarter  of  the 

72 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

century  showed  phenomenal  growth,  the  produc- 
tion increasing  from  13,036  short  tons  in  1876  to 
271,01:9  short  tons  in  1899,  or  an  increase  of  1,979 
per  cent.  It  is  true  that  the  sugar  industry  has 
been  exploited  in  Hawaii  to  the  suppression  of 
other  industries,  w^hich  has  resulted  in  a  continu- 
ous concentration  of  capital.  The  scarcity  of  labor 
is  the  most  serious  handicap  to  the  further  devel- 
opment of  the  industry.  Immigration  has  been 
entirely  inadequate  to  meet  the  labor  demand  since 
the  Chinese  exclusion  law  became  effective  by  an- 
nexation  in   1898. 

The  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  most  of 
the  sugar-cane  lands  are  situated  at  the  base  of 
the  mountains,  so  that  they  consist  of  a  deep  fertile 
alluvial  soil  brought  down  from  the  surrounding 
mountains.  The  islands  have  two  distinct  types 
of  weather  on  the  windward  and  leeward  sides,  the 
rainfall  being  heavy  on  the  former  and  light  on 
the  latter.  Irrigation  must  be  practiced  on  the  dry, 
or  leeward  side,  but  here  the  cane  production  is 
about  double  and  the  cultivation  most  satisfactory. 
The  average  production  of  cane  in  Hawaii  is  about 
34  tons  per  acre,  yielding  8,300  pounds  of  sugar, 
while  in  certain  favored  localities  it  is  as  high 
as  70  tons  per  acre.  Not  only  is  the  acreage 
output  the  highest  of  any  cane  growing  coun- 
try, but  the  sugar  content — 1  ton  of  sugar  to  82 

73 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

tons  of  cane — is  higher  than  in  any  other  coun- 
try. Hawaii  also  leads  the  cane-growing  world 
in  the  mechanical  facilities  of  her  mills  and  re- 
fineries. 

Following  the  j^rohibition  by  Japan  of  immi- 
grants to  Hawaii  the  labor  situation  became  a  seri- 
ous handicap  in  the  development  of  the  sugar-cane 
industry.  The  problem  is  being  satisfactorily 
solved  by  the  importation  of  laborers  from  the 
Philippine  Islands,  Russia,  and  Portugal.  The 
Russians  are  considered  the  most  efficient  laborers 
on  the  island. 

The  total  production  in  1908  was  465,000  short 
tons,  more  than  450,000  tons  of  which  were  ex- 
ported to  the  United  States.  The  production  in 
1909  was  477,000  tons,  and  the  export  to  the 
United  States  was  valued  at  $38,500,000.  Cuba  is 
the  only  country  having  a  larger  sugar  export  to 
this  country. 

CUBA 

Although  sugar  cane  was  introduced  into  Cuba 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century  (1511),  the  industry 
there  did  not  develop  into  commanding  commer- 
cial importance  until  the  eighteenth  century, 
during  which  it  developed  rapidly  under  the 
stimulus  of  a  vigorous  slave  trade.  By  1800  the 
annual  export  from  Havana  reached  20,000  short 

74 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

tons,  which  by  1820  increased  to  50,000  tons.  It 
now  became  the  predominant  industry,  and  Cuba 
soon  took  her  place  in  the  front  rank  of  the  cane- 
growing  countries,  being  never  closely  rivaled  or 
exceeded  by  any,  save  by  little  Java  under  the 
guidance  of  the  wily  Dutchman.  The  production 
in  1850  was  300,000  tons;  in  1870,  726,000  tons; 
in  1900,  600,000  tons;  in  1908,  961,958  tons;  and 
in  1909,  1,513,582  tons,  which  represented  Cuba's 
high-water  mark  in  sugar  production.  Although 
850,000  acres  are  cultivated  in  cane  it  is  estimated 
that  this  is  only  one  fourteenth  of  the  area  adapted 
to  its  cultivation.  Cuba  has  a  total  of  116  sugar 
factories,  of  which  76  are  owned  by  Spanish, 
French,  and  English,  72  by  native  Cubans,  and  38 
by  Americans.  The  present  tendency  is  toward 
the  enlargement  of  sugar  plantations  and  the  cen- 
tralizing of  factories  for  a  more  economical  pro- 
duction with  improved  machinery.  The  Cuban 
factories  have  an  average  tonnage  output  more 
than  three  times  that  of  the  Louisiana  factories. 
The  lack  of  adequate  and  efficient  laborers  is  the 
most  serious  handicap  in  the  way  of  increasing  the 
sugar  production  on  the  island. 

The  Cuban  sugars  are  admitted  on  a  prefer- 
ential tariff  rate  of  twenty  per  cent  reduction,  as  a 
result  of  which  practically  all  of  the  surplus  is  ex- 
ported to  the  United  States.     The  total  crop  in 

75 


THE    STOPvY    OF    SUGAR 

1908  was  961,958  tons,  of  which  916,742  tons  were 
exported  to  the  United  States. 

Being  in  the  Trade  AVind  belt  the  island  is  sub- 
ject to  the  violent  West  India  hurricanes,  which  are 
fatally  destructive  to  the  cane  crop.    The  soils  are 
fertile  and  the  rainfall  abundant,  especially  during 
the  period  from  May  to  October.     Cane  cultivation 
is  largely  limited  to  the  three  provinces  of  Havana, 
Cienfuegos,  and  Santiago  de  Cuba,  in  which  the 
proportion   is   approximately   thirty-eight,   thirty- 
three,    and   twenty-nine   per   cent.     From   five   to 
ten  crops  are  harvested  from  one  planting.     Im- 
provement in  cultivation  is  in  progress,  and  labor- 
saving  facilities  are  being  vigorously  installed  on 
the  large  plantations.     The  decline  in  the  price  of 
sugar  during  recent  years  has  lowered  the  margin 
of  profit,   and   set   up   a   competitive  struggle   so 
severe  as  to  make  necessary  a  general  readjustment 
of  the  industry.    In  1876  the  price  of  Cuban  sugar 
was  eleven  cents  per  pound,  and  the  cost  of  labor 
less  then  than  now.     Since  1900  the  factory  price 
to  the  producer  has  seldom  risen  above  two  and  a 
half  cents  per  pound.     Even  at  this  price  a  small 
profit   is   realized   over   the   present   cost   of   pro- 
duction. 

PORTO  RICO 

Proportionate  to  its  size,  the  island  of  Porto  Rico 
is  an  important  grower  of  sugar  cane,  having  an 

76 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

area  of  only  3,668  square  miles.  Coffee  and  sugar 
cane  are  the  tAVO  leading  crops  on  the  island.  Coffee 
ranks  first  in  area  (122,000  acres)  and  second  in 
value,  Avhile  sugar  is  second  in  area  and  first  in 
value,  the  sugar  export  being  more  than  double  the 
coffee  export.  The  cultivation  of  cane  is  limited  al- 
most exclusively  to  the  coastal  region,  which  consists 
of  a  deep,  fertile,  sandy,  alluvial  soil.  The  rainfall 
in  Porto  Rico  does  not  differ  materially  from  that 
of  Cuba  both  in  amount  and  distribution.  T\yo 
thirds  of  the  rain  falls  in  the  summer  and  autumn. 
The  island  is  also  subject  to  the  AVest  India  hurri- 
canes, which  constitute  a  constant  menace  to  the 
sugar  industry.  Since  1898,  the  year  in  which  the 
United  States  took  formal  possession  of  Porto  Rico, 
there  has  been  marked  progress  in  the  industrial 
development  of  the  island.  The  steady  demand  for 
sugar  in  the  United  States  and  the  admission  of 
sugar  free  from  Port  3  Rico  have  greatly  stimu- 
lated its  cultivation,  the  crop  having  increased 
during  the  past  decade  from  50,000  to  250,000  tons. 
Not  only  has  there  been  a  great  extension  of  the 
sugar  industry,  but  a  reorganization  of  the  indus- 
try through  the  consolidation  of  small  plantations 
into  large  holdings,  most  of  which  are  owned  by 
New  York  capitalists.  Sugar  having  proven  the 
more  profitable  crop,  has  been  developed  at  the 
expense  of  the  coffee  crop,  as  a  result  of  which  the 

77 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

Porto  Rican  sugar  export  under  American  man- 
agement has  increased  from  $2,500,000  to  $19,000,- 
000,  while  during  the  same  period,  the  coffee  ex- 
port declined  from  $7,500,000  to  $4,500,000. 

PHILIPPINES 

This  group  of  islands  is  exceptionally  well 
adapted  to  the  production  of  cane,  but  the  indus- 
try has  made  little  progress  during  the  past  cen- 


SuGAR  Refinery  in  the  Philippines. 

tury.  The  adaptability  of  the  region  for  profitable 
production  makes  it  well  deserve  the  name,  ' '  Pearl 
of  the  Orient,"  but  the  gem  character  has  been 

78 


SUGAR  CANE  IX  OTHER  COUXTPJES 

mueli  blurred  by  the  reign  of  ignorance  and  neg- 
lect. No  country  of  the  tropical  zone  has  a  more 
favorable  climate.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  about  80°  F.,  the  natural  drainage  good,  and  the 
soil  very  fertile. 

The  crop  in  1880  was  estimated  at  175,000  tons. 


Gathering  Sugar  Cane  in  the  Philippines. 


The  average  annual  export  from  1880  to  1898  was 
261,000  tons,  and  this  surplus  was  obtained  by 
the  most  crude  and  wasteful  methods  of  cultivation 
and  manufacture.  Only  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
juice  is  extracted  from  the  cane,  and  yet  the  scale 
of  wages  is  so  low  that  the  cost  of  production  has 
ranged  from   65   cents  to   90   cents  per  hundred 

79 


THE   STORY    OF    SUGAR 

pounds.  The  Spanish,  during  their  possession  of 
the  Archipelago,  did  little  toward  improving  the 
methods  of  production.  Their  chief  attention  was 
directed  to  exploiting  the  productions  of  the  ig- 
norant natives  instead  of  improving  the  methods 
of  production.  Notwithstanding  the  progress  in 
the  establishment  of  sound  and  profitable  trade 
relations  under  the  amicable  guardianship  of  the 
United  States  Government,  no  striking  results 
have  been  realized  in  the  expansion  of  the  sugar 
industry.  A  combination  of  reasons  account  for 
this  situation.  The  exceptionally  high  price  of 
hemp  and  copra  stimulated  these  products  to  the 
relative  depression  of  sugar.  Also  worthy  of  men- 
tion is  the  fact  that  the  policy  of  the  United  States 
has  been  to  train  the  people  to  a  capacity  for  self- 
government  and  industrial  initiative.  To  foster 
this  realization  foreign  capital  has  not  been  in- 
discriminately encouraged,  but  is  gradually  finding 
its  way  into  the  islands. 

The  educational  end  of  agricultural  produc- 
tion is  now  receiving  special  attention  in  the 
teaching  of  elementary  agriculture  in  the  pub- 
lic schools,  the  establishment  of  Experimental  Sta- 
tions and  Experimental  Farms,  and  the  wide  dis- 
tribution of  agricultural  literature. 

The  Philippine  sugar  is  admitted  into  the  United 
States  on  a  preferential  tariff  of  twenty-five  per 

80 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

cent  reduction,  and  since  there  is  a  refundment  of 
the  duty  collected  to  the  Philippine  Government,  it 
amounts  to  admission  free.  The  sugar  export  from 
the  Philippines  in  1907  was  188,395  tons,  while  the 
export  of  1908  was  149,323  tons.  It  is  expected 
with  confidence  that  within  the  next  decade  the 
sugar  export  from  the  Philippines  will  be  doubled, 
provided  the  present  tariff  rate  is  continued,  and 
more  than  doubled  if  the  Philippine  sugar  be 
placed  on  the  free  list. 

MEXICO 

Cane  was  introduced  into  Mexico  by  Cortez,  who 
established  in  Izcalpam  (Mexico)  two  sugar  plan- 
tations. By  1553  Mexico  was  exporting  sugar  to 
Spain  and  Peru.  It  was,  therefore,  the  first  re- 
gion of  the  continental  part  of  the  New  World  to 
export  cane  sugar.  The  industry,  however,  made 
little  headway  during  the  next  two  centuries, 
and  has  never  been  developed  on  a  scale  com- 
mensurate with  the  opportunity.  The  economic 
conditions  are  favorable  for  an  enlarged  produc- 
tion. The  cultivation  can  be  greatly  extended 
in  the  coastal  region,  in  which  the  cane  grows 
luxuriantly  for  many  seasons  from  one  planting. 
Large  areas  of  the  uplands  could  be  profitably 
utilized  by  the  introduction  of  irrigation,  for 
7  81 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

which  the  conditions  are  favorable.  The  labor 
situation  in  Mexico  is  less  perplexing  than  in 
most  of  the  cane-growing  countries,  since  the  moun- 
tain environment  of  the  coastal  zone  makes  it 
easier  to  supply  skilled  laborers  and  intelligent 
supervision. 

Outside  capital  is  now  being  invested  in  lands 
destined  for  sugar  plantations.  One  company  has 
purchased  600,000  acres  in  the  Sonora  Valley, 
which  is  reported  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  sugar  cane. 

The  total  production  in  1899  was  67,000  tons,  as 
compared  with  143,179  tons  in  1909.  The  largest 
producing  states  are  Morelos,  Vera  Cruz,  and 
Puebla.  The  molasses  production  during  1908  ag- 
gregated 70,947  tons,  the  greater  part  of  which  was 
converted  into  alcoholic  drinks. 

CENTRAL   AMERICA 

All  of  the  Central  American  states  are  situated 
in  the  cane-growing  zone,  and  large  areas  above 
4,000  feet  elevation  are  adapted  in  soil  and  cli- 
matic conditions  to  the  production  of  sugar  beets. 
Though  all  of  the  states  produce  some  cane  sugar, 
it  is  not  an  important  export.  Coffee,  rubber, 
hemp,  cocoa,  and  lumber  are  the  chief  exports, 
and  the  sugar  industry  is  not  competing  success- 

82 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

fully  witli  these  commodities,  most  of  which  re- 
quire less  labor  and  are  not  so  dependent  on  ex- 
pensive transportation  margins.  The  coastal  plain 
on  the  Atlantic  side  is  broad,  very  fertile,  and  has 
a  humid  tropical  climate,  there  being  no  dry  sea- 
son east  of  the  mountains.  For  the  profitable 
development  of  the  sugar  industry  much  well- 
directed  labor  would  have  to  be  expended,  and  the 
climatic  conditions  are  neither  attractive  to  the 
best  class  of  laborers  nor  conducive  to  a  thorough 
and  skilled  performance.  Where  sugar  cane  is 
grown  the  average  cost  is  one  and  a  half  cents 
per  pound,  which  is  about  the  average  cost  in  the 
"West  Indies.  The  total  crop  of  Central  America 
in  1909  was  near  20,000  tons,  of  which  Guatemala 
and  San  Salvador  produced  more  than  one  half. 
The  small  surplus  is  shipped  almost  exclusively 
to  Europe. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES 

Of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  Java  is  the  onlv  im- 
portant  grower  of  cane,  though  all  of  the  islands 
of  the  group  are  admirably  adapted  to  a  profit- 
able production.  Although  rice  is  the  most  im- 
portant crop,  since  it  is  the  basis  of  the  food 
supply  for  the  native  population,  sugar  is  by  far 
the  largest  export,   and  is  being  developed  more 

83 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

rapidly  than  any  other  industry.  In  1897  Java 
produced  5^1:6,750  tons  of  sugar,  which  by  1899 
had  risen  to  796,324  tons.  The  production  in 
1909  was  1,241,885  tons,  which  gave  Java  first  rank 
among  the  cane-growing  countries.  There  are  177 
sugar  plantations  on  the  island,  most  of  which  are 
owned  by  capitalists  who  reside  in  Holland.  The 
30,000,000  natives  of  the  island  are  dominated  by 
the  60,000  Hollanders  who  are  employed  to  direct 
the  great  industrial  interests  of  their  countrymen. 
Under  this  regime  the  industrial  development  has 
done  very  little  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
native  Javanese.  The  labor  scale  is  low,  the  aver- 
age wage  being  twenty-five  cents  per  day  to  male 
laborers  and  twelve  cents  to  female.  This  enables 
the  Dutch  plantation  owners  to  produce  sugar  at 
less  than  one  cent  per  pound  on  land  of  only 
average  fertility.  It  is  affirmed  that,  when  raw 
sugar  commands  a  price  of  one  and  a  half  cents 
per  pound,  the  plantation  proprietors  realize  a 
profit  of  forty  per  cent.  For  the  purpose  of  fos- 
tering the  production  of  sugar  from  beets  in  the 
home  land,  as  well  as  for  maintaining  the  price  of 
Java  sugar  on  the  market,  the  Dutch  Government 
enacted  laws  prohibiting  the  further  expansion  of 
the  cane-sugar  industry  in  Java.  The  industrial 
interests  are  further  protected  by  laws  which  pro- 
hibit the  refining  of  raw  sugar  in  Holland. 

84 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

Until  recent  years  the  Java  sugar  export  was 
purchased  almost  exclusively  by  the  United  King- 
dom and  the  United  States,  but  China  and  India 
are  now  becoming  conspicuous  in  the  trade.  This 
trade  will  continue  to  increase,  as  the  consumption 
of  sugar  in  Asia  is  increasing  steadily  and  China 
has  a  comparatively  small  area  adapted  to  sugar 
cane  since  the  loss  of  Formosa.  Within  recent 
years  the  European  export  to  India  has  steadily 
declined,  and  the  import  from  Java  has  propor- 
tionately increased,  constituting  in  1908  sixty-three 
per  cent  of  India's  total  sugar  imports.  The 
amount  of  sugar  which  is  exported  from  Java  to 
the  United  States  varies  from  year  to  year,  de- 
pending upon  the  varying  conditions  of  the  supply 
from  the  countries  whose  sugar  is  admitted  either 
free  or  on  a  preferential  tariff  rate.  In  1908  the 
United  States'  sugar  import  from  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  was  valued  at  $11,000,000. 

The  sugar  zone  in  Java  extends  from  the  coast 
up  to  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet.  The  rainfall  is 
adequate  throughout  the  year,  but  the  rainy  sea- 
son lasts  from  October  to  April.  From  April 
to  October  is  a  period  of  perpetual  sunshine, 
broken  at  frequent  intervals  by  short  and  light 
showers. 


85 


THE   STORY    OF    SUGAR 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


There  is  probably  a  larger  area  in  South  America 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cane  than  in  any  other 
continent.  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Peru  lead  in 
production,  having  grown  about  four  fifths  of  the 
South  American  cane  crop  in  1909. 

Brazil  ranks  first,  with  a  total  production  in 
1909  of  248,000  tons.  More  than  half  of  this  total 
was  produced  in  the  Pernambuco  Province,  where 
the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  are  ideal  for  a 
luxuriant  growth  of  cane.  All  of  the  coastal 
region  of  Brazil  is  adapted  to  cane  cultivation,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  fertile  valleys  which  extend 
inland.  The  methods  of  cultivation  and  manufac- 
ture are  not  modern,  except  on  a  few  large  planta- 
tions, as  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  sugar 
extracted  is  about  seven  per  cent,  or  one  half  of  the 
sugar  content.  The  lack  of  available  capital  is  re- 
ported to  be  the  most  serious  handicap  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  sugar  industry  in  this  country, 
since  most  of  the  factory  owners  are  land  poor, 
and  in  the  attempt  to  control  large  estates  have 
neither  sufficient  capital  for  the  development  of 
the  estates  nor  for  the  economic  manufacture  of 
the  crop.  The  sugar  industry  is  overshadowed  in 
the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  Republic 
by  the  coffee  industry,  which  in  reality  overshad- 

86 


SUGAR  CAXE  IX  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

ows  all  other  industries  as  a  source  of  wealth.  In 
the  great  Amazon  Valley  the  sugar  industry  is 
precluded  by  the  rubber  industry.  The  total  sugar 
export  from  Brazil  in  1909  was  valued  at  $2,000,- 
000.  Practically  all  of  this  surplus  is  sold  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  Prior  to  our  enlarged  sugar 
trade  with  the  noncontiguous  territory  acquired  by 
the  United  States  a  considerable  part  of  Brazil's 
sugar  export  was  purchased  by  the  United  States. 

Argentina  is  not  so  wtII  suited  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cane  as  Brazil,  but  large  areas  in  the  north- 
ern subtropical  belt  are  capable  of  producing  a 
profitable  yield.  The  total  crop  of  1909  yielded 
162,179  tons,  compared  with  a  production  in  1898 
of  60,000  tons.  Unlike  Brazil,  the  largest  sugar- 
producing  province,  Tucuman,  is  far  removed  from 
the  coast,  being  situated  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
Andes.  This  proximity  to  the  high  mountains 
gives  an  abundant  rainfall  throughout  the  year. 

British,  Dutch,  and  French  Guiana  have  a  w^ide 
coastal  plain,  which,  being  in  the  heart  of  the 
tropics  and  in  the  trade-wind  belt,  is  very  favor- 
ably situated  for  a  luxuriant  yield  of  cane,  and  it 
has  been  one  of  the  most  important  export  crops 
during  the  past  two  centuries.  The  production  in 
each  division  of  the  province  is  fostered  with  refer- 
ence to  the  particular  demand  in  the  market  of 
the  respective  home  country. 

87 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

British  Guiana  had  69,500  acres  in  cane  cultiva- 
tion in  1909,  of  which  65,000  acres  were  harvested. 
The  total  sugar  production  was  110,000  tons,  mak- 
ing an  average  of  1.7  tons  per  acre.  Sugar  cane 
continues  the  largest  agricultural  resource  of  the 
colony.  Much  of  it  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture 
of  rum,  the  1908-9  production  being  2,500,000 
gallons.  The  plantation  owners  report  great  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  laborers  during  the  harvest  sea- 
son, and  this  complaint  seems  to  be  general  in  the 
cane-growing  countries  of  the  w^orld. 

In  Venezuela  the  production  of  sugar  is  not  in 
excess  of  the  consumption.  The  coastal  region  is 
here  narrowed  by  the  eastward  extension  of  a 
branch  of  the  Andes,  which  passes  beyond  the 
coast  line  and  seems  to  reappear  in  the  West  India 
Island  group.  The  lower  valley  of  the  Orinoco  is 
very  fertile  and  capable  of  a  generous  yield  of 
all  kinds  of  tropical  products,  but  only  small  areas 
have  been  reclaimed  from  its  virgin  wildness. 

In  latitude  Colombia  lies  wholly  in  the  tropical 
zone,  and  has  a  narrow  coastal  region  on  the  Pacific 
side  and  a  broader  coastal  region  on  the  Atlantic 
side  well  adapted  to  cane.  The  rainfall  through- 
out the  lowlands  of  Colombia  is  heavy,  which,  com- 
bined with  the  excessive  heat  and  the  poor  drain- 
age, makes  the  region  unhealthy,  as  a  result  of 
which  the  cultivated  lands  are  to  be  found  chiefly 

88 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

at  higher  elevations,  where  coffee  and  tobacco  be- 
come the  most  profitable  crops. 

Practically  all  of  the  cultivatable  part  of  Ecua- 
dor below  4,000  feet  elevation  will  grow  sugar  cane 
successfully.  The  annual  output  is  about  8,000 
tons,  which  no  more  than  meets  the  home  demand. 
The  narrow  coastal  region  and  the  limited  valley 
areas  make  Ecuador  less  adapted  to  sugar  pro- 
duction than  the  other  countries  of  South  America 
previously  considered. 

Peru  is  the  third  largest  sugar-producing  coun- 
try of  the  continent,  the  1908  crop  being  estimated 
at  150,000  tons.  Cane  cultivation  is  limited  to  the 
coastal  region,  while  coffee  cultivation  becomes  im- 
portant on  the  central  plateau.  Much  of  the  sugar 
surplus  of  Peru  is  shipped  south  to  Chili,  which 
is  not  a  cane-growing  country.  The  sugar  export 
during  the  first  six  months  of  1909  was  $455,000. 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 

The  sugar  industry  has  experienced  significant 
changes  in  the  islands  of  the  British  West  Indies 
during  the  past  decade.  The  old  system  of  culti- 
vation and  manufacture  is  being  rapidly  discarded 
through  the  purchase  of  the  sugar  interests  by 
large  corporations,  headed  by  European  and  Amer- 
ican capitalists.    The  West  India  group  of  islands 

89 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAE 

was  the  center  of  the  sugar  production  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The  industry- 
flourished  there  under  slavery,  and  rapidly  de- 
clined in  the  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury while  adjusting  itself  to  the  new  conditions 
of  a  free-labor  system. 

Trinidad  cultivates  from  65,000  to  70,000  acres 
in  cane  annually,  and  produced  in  1909  44,512 
tons  of  sugar.  Most  of  this  sugar  is  refined  on  the 
island. 

Jamaica  produces  an  average  of  12,000  tons  and 
exports  about  five  sixths,  which  is  sold  almost  ex- 
clusively to  England  and  Canada.  Jamaica  makes 
extensive  use  of  cane  in  the  manufacture  of  rum, 
exporting  more  than  one  million  gallons  annually. 
The  cultivation  of  cane  has  declined  in  the  island 
since  1880  in  favor  of  tropical  fruits  and  cocoa. 

The  sugar  plantations  of  the  Barbados  are  large, 
and  owned  and  operated  almost  exclusively  by 
Englishmen.  The  system  of  development  seems  to 
be  largely  of  the  spoils-gathering  character,  which 
is  not  calculated  to  establish  permanent  and  sound 
economic  conditions.  The  export  in  1908  was 
29,340  tons.  Most  of  this  goes  to  Canada,  since 
Canada  admits  sugar  from  British  colonies  on  a 
preferential  tariff  rate. 


90 


SUGAR    CAXE    IN    OTHER    COUNTRIES 

FRENCH   WEST  INDIES 

Prior  to  1880  sugar  and  rum  were  almost  the 
only  exports  from  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique. 
Between  1880  and  1900  the  total  trade  declined 
more  than  thirty  per  cent,  due  chiefly  to  the  strong 
competition  with  beet  sugar.  Since  1900  more 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  production  of  to- 
bacco, fruits,  and  cocoa.  Sugar  is  still  an  impor- 
tant export,  amounting  to  75,000  tons  in  1908. 

HAITI  AND  SAN  DOMINGO 

The  sugar  industry  is  declining  in  both  of  these 
islands.  Haiti's  incapable  and  unstable  govern- 
ment, resulting  from  a  similar  citizenship,  makes 
industrial  development  and  prosperity  impossible. 
The  decline  in  San  Domingo  is  largely  attributable 
to  the  supplanting  of  cane  by  cocoa,  which  gives 
a  larger  return  on  the  investment. 

BRITISH  INDIA 

Cane  cultivation  is  being  rapidly  increased  in 
British  India,  but  only  general  estimates  can  be 
made  in  the  absence  of  accurate  statistics.  The 
British  Government  estimated  the  total  area  in 
cane  at  2,876,965  acres  in  1908,  and  a  total  pro- 

91 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

duction  of  2,054,700  tons.  On  this  basis  the  an- 
nual cane-sugar  production  is  3,411,000  tons.  To 
this  must  be  added  the  palm-sugar  production, 
which  in  Bengal  was  estimated  at  163,000  tons  for 
1908.  Modern  British  India,  composed  mostly  of 
ancient  Hindostan,  is  the  largest  sugar-producing 
country  of  the  world,  and  the  per  capita  consump- 
tion is  from  twenty  to  twenty -five  pounds  per  year. 
If  India  and  China  were  as  large  per  capita 
consumers  as  the  United  States,  the  present 
world  production  of  sugar  would  not  more  than 
meet  the  demand  in  these  two  Asiatic  countries. 
The  methods  of  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  ex- 
traction are  very  crude.  In  many  places  the  old 
wooden  mills  are  still  in  use,  which  do  not  extract 
more  than  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  juice. 
Bengal  is  the  most  important  cane-growing  dis- 
trict, producing  one  fifth  to  one  third  of  the  total. 
The  total  import  of  sugar  into  British  India  dur- 
ing 1907-8  was  reported  at  11,180,000  hundred- 
weight, valued  at  £6,151,000.  Of  this  total  Java 
supplied  sixty-three  per  cent  and  I\Iauritius  twenty- 
eight  per  cent.  With  the  rapid  increase  of  the  im- 
port from  Java  has  come  a  proportionate  decrease 
in  the  amount  of  beet  sugar  imported  from  Europe. 


92 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

CHINA 

Sugar  cane  has  been  cultivated  in  China  for 
many  centuries.  The  consumption  of  sugar  by  the 
Chinese  is  heavy,  which  makes  necessary  a  large 
importation  from  the  Straits  region,  Java,  etc. 
Hong  Kong  is  the  largest  refining  center.  The 
total  domestic  production  in  the  empire  is  more 
than  200,000  tons,  a  part  of  which  is  exported,  but 
the  sugar  imports  far  exceed  the  exports.  The 
coastal  region  of  the  southern  and  middle  provinces 
are  the  most  important  producers  of  cane,  and 
large  areas  of  sorghum  are  cultivated  in  the  north- 
ern provinces.  The  native  Chinese  varieties  of 
cane  are  very  hard,  which  makes  them  immune  to 
the  ravages  of  the  white  ants,  so  destructive  in 
China,  India,  and  the  East  Indies. 

The  Chinese  people  are  now  learning  to  use 
sugar  in  their  tea,  wiiich  is  increasing  rapidly  the 
consumption  of  sugar  in  that  country.  With  a  ter- 
ritory differing  but  little  in  area  from  the  United 
States,  exclusive  of  Alaska,  the  Empire  maintains 
a  population  of  about  400,000,000.  Comparatively 
small  areas  are  adapted  to  the  production  of  sugar 
cane,  and  the  possibilities  of  beet  culture  have  not 
been  tested.  It  therefore  seems  certain  that  with 
the  increased  consumption  of  sugar  in  China  must 
come  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  sugar  import. 

93 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  economic  conditions  of  the  country  naturally 
preclude  the  possibility  of  the  Chinese  becoming 
as  large  consumers  of  sugar  as  are  the  people  of 
the  United  States,  but  should  the  Chinese  cultivate 
a  '  '•  sweet  taste  ' '  in  the  consumption  of  rice  as 
they  are  cultivating  it  in  the  consumption  of  tea, 
they  would,  under  present  economic  conditions,  be- 
come very  large  consumers  of  sugar,  unless  the 
price  of  the  commodity  increased  above  the  presen!: 
averages. 

JAPAN-FORMOSA 

The  sugar  industry  is  being  exploited  with  great 
activity  on  the  island  of  Formosa  by  the  Japanese, 
who  are  also  making  every  effort  to  control  the 
sugar  market  and  manufacture  in  China.  The 
Formosan  sugar  enters  Japan  duty  free.  Exclu- 
sive of  Formosa,  Japan's  sugar  imports  in  1908 
were  estimated  at  $10,000,000.  The  bulk  of  this 
came  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  but  the  re- 
fined sugar  came  from  Germany  and  Austria- 
Hungary. 

The  Japanese  acquired  Formosa  in  1891,  but 
had  to  reconquer  it,  and  did  not  complete  the  re- 
conquest  until  1898.  Sugar,  tea,  camphor,  and 
rice  were  the  most  important  exports  at  the  time 
of  the  Japanese  occupation,  and  they  early  began 
the  development  of  the  sugar-cane  industr}^    Mod.- 

94 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

ern  mill's  are  being  constructed,  and  nine  com- 
panies now  have  a  capitalization  of  $5,851,500. 
The  sugar  bureau  of  Formosa  offers  a  subsidy  of 
fertilizers  to  the  value  of  twenty  yen  ($9.96)  per 
kah  (2.45  acres)  of  rose-bamboo  cane  planted. 
The  average  yield  per  acre  is  fourteen  tons.  Until 
1902  the  old  stone  mills  were  in  general  use,  and 
extracted  only  forty-five  per  cent  of  the  juice. 
The  most  modern  of  the  new  mills  average  seventy- 
eight  per  cent  extraction.  The  present  cultivation 
is  limited  almost  exclusively  to  the  southern  part 
of  the  island. 

AUSTRALIA 

Sugar  cane  was  first  cultivated  in  Queensland  in 
1862,  and  is  now  the  most  productive  agricultural 
resource.  The  sugar  -zone  is  limited  to  the  fertile 
coastal  region,  where  there  is  ample  room  for  a 
great  development  of  the  industry.  The  produc- 
tion increased  from  148,000  tons  in  1904  to  184,375 
tons  in  1908.  The  cane  yield  per  acre  was  17.6 
tons,  which  gave  an  average  of  1.88  tons  of  sugar. 
The  present  product' on  about  meets  the  domestic 
demand.  The  per  capita  consumption  in  Queens- 
land in  1908  was  102.4  pounds. 

Cane  was  first  cultivated  in  New  South  Wales 
in  1824,  but  has  not  made  satisfactory  progress. 
From   1870   to   1890   the   acreage   increased   from 

95 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

3,900  acres  to  18,000  acres,  and  has  changed  but 
little  since  1890.  The  total  production  in  1908 
was  23,418  tons.  There  is  also  a  limited  cultivation 
in  Victoria,  South  Australia,  West  Australia,  and 
Tasmania. 

AFRICA 

Egypt  is  the  most  important  cane-growing  coun- 
try of  continental  Africa.  It  flourishes  on  the 
moist  lowland  region  of  the  great  Nile  delta,  but 
it  is  not  gaining  in  its  competition  with  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  rice,  each  of  which  has  become  more 
profitable  within  the  past  two  decades.  The  crop  of 
1909  produced  55,000  tons  of  sugar,  which  was  a 
substantial  increase  over  1908. 

Sugar  cane  is  the  only  important  crop  on  the 
Mauritius  Island,  the  total  production  of  which  in 
1909  was  estimated  at  195,000  tons. 

The  crop  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  Congo  Valley 
and  has  long  been  utilized  by  the  natives  for  con- 
sumption in  the  raw  condition  from  the  stalk.  Ex- 
perimentation is  in  progress  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa,  where  the  prospects  are  favorable  for  a 
profitable  establishment  of- the  industry.  The  cane 
matures  well  and  averages  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
per  cent  sugar. 

In  1908,  12,665  acres  were  cultivated  in  cane  in 
the  Zambesi  Valley,  which  produced  12,665  tons  of 

96 


SUGAR  CANE  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

sugar.  The  acreage  yield  runs  as  high  as  60 
tons.  The  first  crop  requires  fifteen  months  for 
maturing,  after  which  the  canes  produce  an  an- 
nual crop.  The  inability  to  obtain  laborers  is  the 
only  serious  obstacle  to  the  extension  of  the  in- 
dustry. 


8 


chapter  vii 

co:n^trolling  factors  in  the  produc- 
tion  OF   SUGAR  BEETS 

The  climatic  conditions  required  for  the  most 
profitable  production  of  sugar  beets  differ  mate- 
rially from  the  conditions  enumerated  as  most  fa- 
vorable for  the  production  of  sugar  cane.  Although 
beets  will  grow  throughout  a  wide  latitude  zone 
extending  from  the  heat  of  the  tropics  into  the 
very  shadow  of  the  subarctic  zone,  still  the  belt 
which  matures  a  beet  of  high  sugar  content  is  com- 
paratively narrow.  The  average  annual  tempera- 
ture is  not  so  important  in  the  production  of  beets 
as  the  temperature  conditions  during  the  growing 
season — June,  July,  and  August.  Most  of  the 
beet-producing  countries  have  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  60°  to  65°  F. 

The  exact  temperature  conditions  are  not  so  vi- 
tally important  as  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall, 
the  condition  of  humidity,  the  percentage  of  sun- 
shine, and  the  length  of  the  growing  season.  The 
quality  of  the  beet  is  best  conserved  by  the  follow- 

98 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    BEETS 

ing  conditions:  an  abundant  winter  rainfall;  an 
average  spring  rainfall  distributed  in  local  showers, 
with  a  large  percentage  of  days  of  sunshine;  an 
average  rainfall  during  June  and  July,  inter- 
spersed with  hot  sunshine;  followed  by  drier  con- 
ditions in  August  and  September;  and  dry  and 
cool  weather  during  October  and  November.  This 
distribution  of  temperature  and  rainfall  gives  the 
plant  sufficient  moisture  for  a  vigorous  start,  en- 
ables the  farmer  to  cultivate  the  crop  thoroughly 
in  its  first  stages,  thereby  clearing  out  the  weeds 
and  grasses,  supplies  the  moisture  which  is  neces- 
sary in  the  height  of  the  growing  season  (June 
and  July),  and  affords  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions during  the  maturing  stages  for  realizing  the 
highest  sugar  content.  A  late  and  cool  autumn  is 
especially  desirable,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of 
having  sufficient  time  in  which  to  harvest  and 
manufacture  the  crop,  but  for  the  sake  of  protect- 
ing the  crop  against  deterioration,  which  rapidly 
takes  place  in  warm  and  moist  autumn  weather  if 
the  beets  are  left  in  the  ground.  Because  of  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  the  ideal  climatic  conditions 
for  the  most  favorable  production  of  beets,  the  best 
results  are  realized  by  irrigation.  This  is  emphati- 
cally true  in  the  United  States,  since  large  areas 
of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  West  are  situated  in  the 
theoretical  beet  belt   previously   mentioned. 

99 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  soil  condition  is  only  second  in  importance 
to  the  climatic  condition.  In  the  selection  of  a  good 
beet  soil  the  physical  properties  must  be  considered 
as  well  as  those  of  fertility.  The  crop  is  rapid  in 
growth  and  large  in  tonnage,  so  that  it  is  positively 


Correct  Position  of  Mature  Beet  in  Soil. 

necessary  to  have  an  abundant  supply  of  plant 
food  easily  available.  Supposing  the  presence  of 
this,  the  drainage  conditions  must  be  good  to  insure 
a  thorouii'h  ventilation  of  the  soil,  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  rapid  assimilation  of  the  plant  food. 
The  beet  root  is  relatively  large  and  long,  and  for 
perfect  development  requires  a  deep  soil  of  fine 

100 


FACTORS    IX    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    BEETS 

and  even  texture,  otherwise  the  roots  will  be  of 
very  irregular  shape.  A  soil  which  is  typically 
sandy  does  not  carry  sufficient  plant  food,  and  a 


Well-formed  Beet. 


Effect  of  Bad  Sub-soil. 


hea\y  clay  does  not  afford  the  physical  condition 
necessary  for  the  normal  development  of  perfect 
roots.  Since  the  beet  crop  requires  an  abundance 
of  lime  as  one  of  the  plant  foods,  a  calcareous 
loam  of  strong-  clay  admixture  seems  best  adapted 
from  the  standpoint  of  plant  food,  and  fulfills  the 
physical  requirements.  Obviously  a  rocl-ry^  soil  is 
not  adapted  to  the  maturing  of  a  root  crop ;  neither 

101 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

are  the  mucky  and.  peaty  soils  of  low,  alluvial  lands 
adapted  on  account  of  the  surplus  water  supply, 
which  prevents  the  free  admission  of  the  air  so 
necessary  for  assimilating  the  elements  of  nutri- 
tion. Black  alkali  soils  and  soils  containing;  a  large 
percentage  of  salt  (sodium  chloride)  cannot  be 
utilized  in  the  cultivation  of  beets. 

The  beet  growers  are  awaking  to  the  importance 
and  the  necessity  of  returning  fertility  to  the  land 
to  compensate  for  that  consumed  in  maturing  the 
beet  crop.  The  crop  is  not  so  exhaustive  as  corn, 
wheats  and  tobacco,  but  more  exhaustive  than  pota- 
toes, beans,  and  grasses.  Beets  being  heavy  con- 
sumers of  nitrogen,  potash,  and  lime,  naturally 
respond  profitably  to  the  application  of  these  fer- 
tilizers, which  not  only  increase  the  tonnage  of 
beets,  but  the  percentage  of  sugar.  The  highest 
tonnage  yields  have  been  obtained  by  the  generous 
application  of  stable  manure,  but  the  crops  in  each 
case  gave  a  lower  percentage  of  sugar  than  was 
realized  from  land  treated  with  commercial  fer- 
tilizers bearing  the  above-named  constituents,  and 
a  lower  percentage  than  was  obtained  from  plots 
having  no  fertilizer  application. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  for  consider- 
ation is  the  improvement  and  selection  of  the  seed. 
We  have  seen  in  a  previous  chapter  how  much  has 
been   accomplished   toward    increasing   the    sugar 

102 


FACTORS  IN  PRODUCTION  OF  SUGAR  BEETS 

content  by  improvements  in  seed  selection.  In 
fact,  the  amount  of  sugar  which  a  beet  contains 
depends  largely  on  the  climate,  the  cultivation,  the 
soil,  and  the  seed.  The  beet  which  gives  the  high- 
est sugar  return  is  of  medium  size,  pear  shape, 
large  leaf,  but  relatively  small  top.  It  has  also 
been  found  that  by  increasing  the  size  of  an  ac- 
credited variety,  the  root  becomes  more  watery, 
of  coarser  texture,  and  of  lower  sugar  content. 

It  seems  advisable  to  practice  in  most  places  au- 
tumn plowing  for  beets,  thereby  leaving  the  land 
fallow  during  the  winter.  The  plowing  should  be 
systematically  deep,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of 
stirring  the  soil  to  make  available  a  large  supply 
of  plant  food,  but  also  for  the  preparation  of  an 
adequate  root  bed  in  which  the  plant  can  develop 
without  hindrance.  Unless  the  soil  is  very  rich  in 
natural  fertilizer  ingredients,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  apply  generously  commercial  fertilizer.  The 
beet  is  a  crop  which  requires  constant  cultivation 
during  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season  to 
conserve  the  moisture  and  kill  out  the  weeds  and 
grasses,  which  become  robbers  of  the  money  crop. 
If  the  land  has  been  cleaned  of  grass  and  weed 
seeds,  the  cultivation  after  thinning  can  be  success- 
fully conducted  by  machinery — in  fact,  more  suc- 
cessfully than  can  be  done  with  the  cane  crop. 

The  beet  crop  is  subject  to  a  number  of  enemies, 

103 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

the  most  important  of  which  are  the  beet  army 
worm,  the  wireworm,  the  beetworm,  beetles,  plant 
lice,  grasshoppers,  and  a  number  of  fungous 
diseases.     The  most  important  of  the  fungous  dis- 


MoDERN  Beet  Cultivator. 

eases  are  "  beet  scab,''  ''  leaf  spot,"  "  curly  top," 
and  ' '  root  rot. ' '  Some  of  these  enemies  feed  upon 
the  root,  while  others  feed  upon  the  tops.  ''  Curly 
top  "  and  grasshoppers  are  much  more  destructive 
in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  west,  while  "  root 
rot  "  is  decidedly  more  common  and  destructive  in 
the  humid  east.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  ene- 
mies to  the  beet  crop  are  becoming  more  wide- 
spread and  destructive  each  year. 

104 


FACTOPxS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    BEETS 

The  value  of  beets  is  proportionate  to  the 
percentage  of  sugar  content  and  the  tonnage. 
There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  amount  of 
sugar  yielded  by  the  crops  of  different  coun- 
tries, and  yet  all  of  the  beet-producing  countries 
have  so  improved  the  varieties  and  the  meth- 
ods as  to  produce  beets  which  average  more  than 
ten  per  cent  of  sugar.  Fifty  years  ago  this 
average  was  not  realized  in  the  countries  best 
adapted  to  the  crop.  Many  of  the  manufacturers 
purchase  the  beets  on  a  sliding  scale,  based  upon 
the  percentage  of  sugar.  This  rule  is  not  so  gen- 
eral in  the  United  States  as  it  is  in  the  countries 
of  Europe.  In  1880  France  was  only  extracting 
five  per  cent  sugar,  while  Germany  was  extracting 
a  little  more  than  ten  per  cent.  The  difference  in 
the  sugar  content  was  such  as  to  enable  Germany 
to  produce  sugar  at  one  half  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion in  France,  granting  that  the  other  expense 
items  were  identical.  The  variation  in  the  United 
States  is  almost  as  marked,  since  the  average  sugar 
content  in  the  beet-growing  region  of  Michigan 
seldom  exceeds  twelve  per  cent,  while  the  average 
in  certain  parts  of  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  California 
runs  as  high  as  twenty-two  per  cent.  It  so  happens, 
however,  that  in  the  states  producing  beets  of  the 
highest  sugar  content,  wages  are  higher,  land  val- 
ues higher,  and  the  cost  of  i^roduction  increased 

105 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

greatiy  by  the  necessity  for  irrigation.  This  more 
or  less  balances  the  economic  conditions  which  en- 
ter into  the  competition. 

The  labor  cost  is  a  very  important  item  in  the 
production  of  beet  sugar.  It  is  necessary  that  cul- 
tivation be  thorough  and  continuous,  and  although 
labor-saving  machinery  may  be  utilized  to  advan- 
tage in  the  cultivation,  no  satisfactory  machine  has 


Harvesting  a  Field  of  Sugar  Beets. 


yet  been  invented  either  for  topping  the  beets  or 
harvesting  them.  The  United  States  stands  out 
conspicuously  among  the  countries  of  the  earth  in 
the  high  scale  of  Avages  maintained,  and  yet  the 
price  paid  to  the  groAver  of  beets  in  this  country  is 
less  than  in  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  or  Aus- 
tria.    In  1908  the  American  factories  paid  from 

106 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    BEETS 


$4.75  to  $5.75  per  ton  for  beets,  while  the  average 
price  during  the  same  year  in  Germany  was  $5  to 
$6,  and  in  France  $7.  It  is  encouraging  to  note, 
however,  that  the  price 
paid  for  beets  at  Amer- 
ican factories  has  in- 
creased more  than  thir- 
ty per  cent  since  1900. 
The  cost  of  trans- 
porting beets  from  the 
field  to  the  factory  is 
an  imiDortant  item  of 
cost.  It  is  estimated 
to  cost  at  the  rate  of 
forty  cents  per  ton  for 
the  first  mile  and  twen- 
ty-five cents  per  ton 
for  each  succeeding 
mile.  From  this  it  is 
obvious  that  a  ten-mile 
haul  on  wagons  would 


Loss   IN   Capping. 

Beet  forced  out  of  ground  during 
growth. 


make  the  cost  prohibitive  at  the  current  prices  of 
beets  at  the  factories. 

Government  bounties  and  tariffs  naturally  in- 
fluence vitally  the  conditions  of  competition  in  any 
producing  country.  All  of  the  beet-growing  coun- 
tries of  Europe  place  a  duty  on  the  sugar  produced 
in  their  respective  colonics  or  on  that  produced 

107 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

in  the  home  country.  This  serves  the  dual  pur- 
pose of  protecting  the  beet-sugar  industry  on 
the  continent,  and  of  affording  an  important  source 
of  revenue.  The  duty  is  2. 5. cents  per  pound  in 
France,  2  cents  in  Germany,  1.82  cents  in  Belgium, 
7.7  cents  in  Spain,  8.8  cents  in  Russia,  and  3.1 
cents  in  Roumania.  Even  free-trade  England  im- 
poses a  duty  of  45.5  cents  per  hundred-weight  (112 
pounds)  on  imported  sugar.  The  United  States 
has  protected  the  domestic  industry  by  placing  a 
duty  of  $1.68 J  on  96°  sugar  from  foreign  countries. 

As  to  whether  the  cultivation  of  beets  and  the 
manufacture  of  beet  sugar  in  any  given  locality 
)C,will  prove  a  permanent  success  depends  in  a  large 
measure  upon  whether  the  region  is  adapted  to 
crops  productive  of  larger  profits.  As  an  illustra- 
tion, Idaho  during  the  past  decade  has  made  rapid 
strides  in  the  expansion  of  her  beet-sugar  interests, 
but  just  now  there  is  quite  a  reaction  because  of 
the  larger  profits  which  many  individuals  have 
realized  on  fruits  and  vegetables.  Land  which  was 
salable  at  $75  to  $100  per  acre  as  beet  land  has 
suddenly  risen  in  price  to  $150  to  $300  per  acre  for 
fruit  growing.  We  must,  therefore,  expect  the 
beet  industry  to  readjust  itself  from  time  to  time 
with  reference  to  new  discoveries  and  new  adap- 
tations. 

In  figuring  the  cost  of  i^roduction  the  by-prod- 

108 


FACTORS    IN    PRODUCTION    OF    SUGAR    BEETS 

nets  must  be  counted  as  one  of  the  assets  to  the 
industry.  All  the  by-products  from  the  manufac- 
ture of  sugar  from  beets  are  valuable  for  stock- 
feeding  purj^oses.  The  farmer  can,  therefore,  feed 
the  tops  and  the  pulp  from  the  mill,  and  in  this 
incidental  way  help  to  provide  for  the  live  stock 
of  the  farm. 

With  our  transportation  facilities  the  geographic 
situation  of  the  region  is  not  of  the  importance  it 
was  formerly,  but  still  it  constitutes  an  important 
economic  factor  in  the  distribution  of  a  large  pro- 
duction of  any  staple  commodity.  In  the  United 
States  the  domestic  sugar  supply  is  fortunately 
well  distributed,  since  the  Atlantic  seaboard  repre- 
sents the  refining  zone  for  the  imported  raw  sugars, 
and  the  great  beet  zone  of  the  west  provides  a  par- 
tial sugar  supply  for  that  constantly  increasing 
population  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  In  the 
refining  of  raw  cane  sugar  large  plants  are  the  rule, 
while  in  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  each  mill- 
ing station  represents  a  refining  station.  We  find, 
therefore,  that  the  larger  centers  of  the  east,  which 
are  directly  in  touch  with  the  factories  and  with 
the  world's  sugar  trade,  hold  the  price-fixing 
power. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
EISE    OF   THE   BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY 

The  extraction  of  sugar  from  beets  elates  back 
to  1747,  when  Andrew  Marggraf,  chemist  in  the 
University  of  Berlin,  discovered  the  existence  of  a 
sugar  in  beets  similar  in  its  properties  to  that  ob- 
tained from  cane.  He  succeeded  in  extracting  only 
about  three  per  cent.  The  discovery  was,  however, 
little  utilized,  as  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from 
beets  did  not  attain  commercial  importance  for 
almost  a  century.  It  remained  for  Francis  Karl 
Achard,  a  pupil  of  Marggraf,  to  make  inventions 
and  discoveries  for  launching  the  industry  com- 
mercially. His  success  aroused  the  interest  of 
Frederick  William  III,  King  of  Prussia,  who  aided 
in  the  construction  of  the  first  beet-sugar  factory 
of  the  world.  This  was  built  in  1799  on  the  Cu- 
nern  estate,  near  Steinau,  in  Silesia.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  others  in  Prussia,  Bohemia,  and  France. 
Not  only  was  the  actual  amount  of  sugar  contained 
in  the  beets  small,  but  the  methods  of  extraction 

110 


RISE    OF    THE    BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY 

were  crude  and  inadequate.  The  production  of 
sugar  from  sugar  cane  was  also  increasing  rapidly 
during  this  period,  so  that  the  increased  sugar  sup- 
ply militated  against  the  rise  of  the  new  industry. 
The  German  chemists  were  not  indifferent  to  the 
future  possibilities  of  this  source  of  sugar,  and 
were  making  substantial  progress  in  methods  of 
extraction  when  England  blockaded  the  ports  of 
continental  Europe  during  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
This  blockade  effectually  cut  off  the  cane  sugar 
supply  to  continental  Europe,  and  naturally  had 
the  effect  of  greatly  stimulating  both  the  French 
and  the  Germans  in  their  experimentations.  In  1806 
the  French  Government  offered  the  first  bounty  on 
the  production  of  beet  sugar.  The  supply  of  sugar 
in  France  and  the  other  European  countries  was 
being  rapidly  exhausted,  and  the  price  was  be- 
ing raised  to  prohibitory  rates,  the  average  price 
of  sugar  in  France  from  1807  to  1815  being  thirty 
cents  per  pound.  The  first  French  factory  was 
constructed  in  1811  near  Lille,  on  the  estate  of 
Crespel-Delisse.  The  French  Government  appro- 
priated in  1812,  1,000,000  francs  for  perfecting 
experiments  on  beets  as  a  commercial  source  of 
sugar.  In  this  year  France  had  16,758  acres  culti- 
vated in  beets.  The  total  beet  crop  milled  was 
98,813  tons,  which  yielded  1,650  tons  of  sugar. 
Forty  small  factories  were  in  operation  in  France, 

111 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

but  with  the  annulment  of  the  continental  block- 
ade cane  sugar  was  placed  on  the  market  at 
a  price  so  low  as  to  close  many  of  these  factories. 
The  total  sugar  production  in  1827  was  estimated 
at  1,000  tons,  a  decline  of  forty  per  cent  in  fifteen 
years.  Because  of  the  greater  inducements  offered 
by  the  government,  the  greatest  expansion  of  the 
beet-sugar  industry  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  was  experienced  in  France. 

The  Germans,  however,  were  achieving  more  on 
the  scientific  and  technical  side,  which  was  destined 
to  bring  them  later  to  the  forefront  among  the  beet- 
growing  countries  of  the  world.  They  were  also 
making  rapid  progress  in  improving  the  quality  of 
the  beets,  both  as  to  sugar  content  and  acreage  ton- 
nage. In  1885  the  average  sugar  content  in  France 
was  7.83  per  cent,  as  compared  with  12  per  cent 
in  Germany.  By  the  introduction  of  improved 
German  seed,  and  the  application  of  better  meth- 
ods of  cultivation  the  French  crop  has  averaged 
during  the  past  decade  11  to  12  per  cent. 

Germany  did  not  outrank  France  in  production 
until  1878,  since  which  time  she  has  held  the  first 
place  in  the  world's  production  of  sugar  beets,  and 
ranks  first  in  the  volume  of  the  export  trade.  In 
1836  Germany  had  122  beet-sugar  factories  which 
consumed  25,346  tons  of  beets  for  the  production 
of  1,408  tons  of  sugar.    The  average  sugar  extrac- 

112 


RISE    OF   THE    BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY 

tion  during  this  year  was  only  5.5  per  cent,  as  com- 
pared with  12.18  per  cent  in  1886.  The  per  capita 
consumption  in  1836  was  only  4.4  pounds,  which 
required  an  import  of  51,527  tons  of  cane  sugar. 
The  next  two  decades  witnessed  a  steady  develop- 
ment of  the  industry,  the  production  in  1856  being 
87,359  tons,  and  the  per  capita  consumption  7.14 
pounds.^  Still  the  supply  was  inadequate  and  the 
price  restrictive.  The  factory  price  in  Magdeburg 
in  1856  was  9.4  cents  per  pound,  as  compared  with 
4.2  cents  in  1886.  In  1877  Germany  had  258,000 
acres  of  beets  which  produced  378,000  tons  of 
sugar.  Improvements  in  the  methods  of  manufac- 
ture and  the  increased  demand  brought  about  a 
rapid  increase  in  cultivation,  as  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  crop  of  1886  yielded  more  than  1,000,000 
tons  of  sugar.  The  amount  of  sugar  consumed  in 
Germany  has  increased  with  the  increase  of  the 
sugar  content,  the  increase  in  the  percentage  of 
extraction,  the  increase  in  acreage  production,  and 
with  the  decrease  in  the  cost  of  production.  In 
1906  the  per  capita  consumption  was  41.18  pounds, 
the  average  sugar  extraction  15.69  per  cent,  the 
cost  of  production  1.97  cents  per  pound,  and  the 
total  production  2,223,521  tons. 

Within  the  past  quarter  century  the  beet-grow- 
ing industry  has  extended  to  all  of  the  countries 
of  Europe,  and  has  been  sufficiently  successful  in 
9  113 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  Roumania,  and  Scandi- 
navia to  make  it  recognized  as  a  permanent  source 
of  wealth. 

Very  little  has  been  done,  even  in  an  experi- 
mental way,  toward  the  introduction  of  sugar  beets 
into  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America.  The  gen- 
eral conditions  in  Asia  are  unsuited  to  an  eco- 
nomic development  of  the  industry,  but  certainly 
beets  of  satisfactory  sugar  content  could  be  grown 
in  many  parts  of  the  Asiatic  highlands  susceptible 
to  irrigation,  and  throughout  a  large  area  in  south- 
ern Siberia.  The  prospects  are  also  considered 
favorable  for  a  large  development  of  the  industry 
in  Manchuria  and  a  limited  development  in  north- 
ern China.  The  profitable  beet  zone  in  Africa  is 
unquestionably  limited  to  a  comparatively  small 
area  in  southern  Africa.  At  least  limited  areas  in 
all  the  countries  of  South  America  are  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  beets.  Experimentation  has  al- 
ready begun  in  the  highland  region  of  southeastern 
Brazil  and  in  the  temperate  zone  belt  of  Ar- 
gentina. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  early  in- 
terested itself  in  the  investigation  of  the  prospects 
for  developing  the  beet-sugar  industry  in  this 
country.  The  first  successful  experiment  was 
made  in  1838  by  David  Child  of  Massachusetts, 
who  extracted  six  per  cent  of  sugar.    At  this  time 

114 


Western  Svg^r  Refinery 


ft 

RISE    OF   THE    BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY 

there  was  no  separate  Department  of  Agricnlture, 
bnt  the  agricultural  interests  came  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  That 
the  prospects  were  considered  favorable  may  be 
judged  by  the  following  quotation  from  the  report 
of  the  Committee  on  Agriculture:  "  From  all  the 
information  which  the  committee  have  been  able 
to  obtain,  they  are  induced  to  believe  that  no  coun- 
try in  the  world  is  better  adapted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sugar  beets  than  most  parts  of  the  United 
States,  whether  we  consider  the  soil,  the  climate, 
or  the  people. ' '  Following  this  report  some  of  the 
states  offered  bounties  on  sugar  from  beets  grown 
within  the  state.  The  bounty  in  Massachusetts  was 
three  cents  per  pound  during  a  period  of  five  years. 
Several  private  individuals  were  experimenting  at 
this  time  on  the  growing  of  beets,  but  since  little 
success  was  attained  in  the  practical  development 
of  the  industry,  the  enthusiasm  soon  waned,  and 
was  not  renewed  during  the  next  twenty-five 
years. 

The  first  well-defined  efforts  in  the  production  of 
sugar  beets  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  were 
made  in  1863  at  Chatsworth,  111.  It  was  fortu- 
nate for  this  new  period  of  experimentation  that 
the  agricultural  interests  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment were  detached  from  the  Patent  Office  and 
placed  in  a  special  department  under  a  Commis- 

115 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR  ' 

sioner  of  Agriculture.  The  Chatsworth  enterprise, 
however,  eventually  failed,  and  it  was  not  until 
1870  that  a  permanent  factory  was  established.  In 
this  year  a  factory  was  constructed  at  Alvarado, 
Cal.,  by  two  Germans,  Bonesteel  and  Otto,  which 
has  been  in  continuous  operation,  excepting  one 
year,  since  its  construction. 

The  discouraging  results  from  the  early  experi- 
ments conducted  in  the  United  States  were  due 
chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the  states  engaged  in  ex- 
perimenting were  not  adapted  in  soil  and  climate 
to  the  crop.  The  factories  were  also  small,  which 
made  the  cost  of  production  too  expensive.  Where- 
as the  countries  of  Europe  had  fostered  the  indus- 
try by  the  granting  of  subsidies  and  liberal  boun- 
ties, the  United  States  Government  had  offered  no 
aid,  brought  to  bear  no  material  tariff  protection 
until  1883,  and  no  adequate  protection  until 
1897. 

The  next  successful  factory  was  constructed  in 
1888  at  Watsonville,  Cal.,  by  Clans  Spreckels,  the 
Hawaiian  sugar  king.  During  the  first  year  of  its 
.operation  1.000  tons  of  refined  sugar  were  manu- 
factured. The  Oxnard  Brothers  were  the  next  to 
give  factory  impetus  to  the  industry  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  factory  at  Grand  Island,  Neb.,  in 
1889;  one  at  Norfolk,  Neb.,  in  1891;  and  one  at 
Chino,  Cal.,  during  the  same  year.     From  this  we 

116 


>  RISE    OF   THE    BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY 

see  that  the  commercial  production  of  beet  sugar 
in  the  United  States  really  dates  from  1890,  since 
only  three  factories  had  been  established  prior  to 
that  date,  and  they  were  of  small  capacity.  The 
most  significant  legislative  act  was  the  Sugar 
Bounty  Act  of  1890,  for  the  passage  of  which 
AYilliam  McKinley  labored  so  earnestly.  It  pro- 
vided for  a  bounty  of  2  cents  per  pound  on  domes- 
tic beet  sugar,  and  was  to  be  enforced  for  a  period 
of  fifteen  years  (1890-1905).  This  act  was  soon 
repealed,  and  the  Wilson  Act  of  1894  did  not 
afford  adequate  protection.  The  total  output  in 
1892  was  13,000  tons,  produced  by  six  factories. 
The .  development  was  more  rapid  following  the 
passage  of  the  Dingley  Act  of  1897,  according  to 
which  imported  sugars  were  taxed  as  follows:  re- 
fined sugar,  $1.95  per  100  pounds;  96°  sugar,  $1.68 
per  100  pounds,  with  a  reduction  of  3J  cents  for 
each  degree  below  96,  and  an  increase  of  3J  cents 
for  each  degree  above  96.  During  1899  fourteen 
new  factories  were  constructed.  The  total  beet- 
sugar  production  of  the  United  States  in  1897  was 
45,245  short  tons  (2,000  pounds),  as  compared 
with  218,406  tons  in  1902.  The  area  cultivated  in 
1902  was  216,400  acres,  from  which  1,895,812  tons 
of  beets  were  sliced  in  forty-one  factories.  The  de- 
velopment since  1902  has  been  of  phenomenal 
rapidity. 

117 


THE    STOKY    OF   SUGAR 


TABLE  IV 

Growth  of  Beet-Sugar  Industry  in  the  United  States, 

1902-1908 


Year. 


1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 


Beets  Worked 

Price 

(short  tons). 

per  Ton. 

1,895,812 

$4.84 

2,076,494 

4.86 

2,071,539 

4.95 

2,665,913 

5.00 

4,236,112 

5.10 

3,767,871 

5.20 

3,414,891 

5.35 

Total  Value 
of  Beets. 


$9,175,730 
18,091,761 
10,254,018 
13,329,565 
21,604,171 
19,592,929 
18,269,667 


The  beet-sugar  industry  has  made  most  rapid 
progress  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  States,  Califor- 
nia, Colorado,  Utah,  Arizona,  Idaho,  and  Nebraska ; 
and  in  Michigan  and  Minnesota.  Since  the  passing 
of  the  Reclamation  Act  in  1903  irrigation  projects 
have  been  pushed  through  w^ith  great  activity,  and 
the  increase  in  the  beet  acreage  under  irrigation 
has  kept  pace.  The  superior  adaptation  of  the 
crop  to  irrigation  has  already  been  noted.  Since 
1900  the  total  acreage  in  beets  has  increased  more 
than  3-fold;  but  the  acreage  in  Colorado  has 
been  increased  in  that  period  125-fold — from  1,000 
acres  to  127,678  acres.  Lands  adapted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  beets  have  increased  in  value  disproportion- 
ately to  the  lands  adapted  to  other  branches  of 
farming.    It  is  estimated  that  irrigated  sugar-beet 

118 


RISE    OF   THE    BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY 

lands  increased  in  value  from  1900  to  1905  as  fol- 
lows: California,  42.5  per  cent;  Colorado,  118  per 
cent ;  and  Utah,  36  per  cent.  Very  little  sugar-beet 
land  in  California  can  be  purchased  at  $200  per 
acre. 

The  Government  is  laboring  earnestly  on  the 
problem  of  seed  improvement.  The  imported  seeds 
deteriorate  to  a  varying  degree  in  the  process  of 
acclimatization.  The  prospect  is  favorable  for  the 
development  of  varieties  which  will  be  better  suited 
to  the  United  States  beet  belt.  Encouraging  sue-  ^ 
cess  is  also  being  attained  in  tho  direction  of  prop- 
agating a  single-germ  seed,  which  would  greatly 
reduce  the  amount  of  hand  labor  now  necessary  in 
the  early  stages  of  cultivation. 

Although  the  early  failures  in  the  development 
of  the  beet-sugar  industry  in  the  United  States 
were  largely  due  to  geographic  situation  and  crude 
methods  of  extraction,  there  are  other  considera- 
tions of  increasing  importance.  Some  have  re- 
cently failed  because  the  promoters  overestimated 
the  capacity  of  the  community  to  produce  beets. 
The  expense  of  construction  and  equipment  is  so 
great  and  the  harvesting  season  so  short,  that,  un- 
less the  beet  supply  is  ample  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  factory,  the  profits  of  the  working  season  are 
likely  to  be  consumed  by  the  losses  of  the  idle 
season.    It  is  also  important  to  consider  the  adap- 

119 


THE    STORY   OF    SUGAR 

tability  of  the  region  to  other  crops  productive  of 
larger  money  returns.  The  beet  crop  is  now  being 
rapidly  supplanted  in  parts  of  Idaho  and  Colorado 
by  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  maximum  return  on 
beets  is  $60  to  $75  per  acre,  but  if  the  land  is  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  orchard  or  small  fruits  it  Avill 
soon  bring  a  net  return  of  $200  to  $600  per  acre; 
or,  if  adapted  to  vegetables  and  convenient  to  good 
markets,  trucking  will  be  far  more  profitable  than 
sugar  beets.  With  the  industrial  development  of 
the  country  must  come  gradual  readjustments  of 
crop  distribution.  The  economic  beet  zone  will 
gradually  shift  from  the  less  profitable  beet-grow- 
ing localities,  and  become  the  more  firmly  estab- 
lished in  situations  having  a  maximum  adaptation. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE   BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY  IN   THE 
UNITED    STATES 

The  average  summer  temperature  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  annual  rainfall  are  the  controlling 
climatic  factors  which  outline  the  profitable  sugar- 
beet  zone  in  the  United  States.  The  crop  seems  to 
mature  most  satisfactorily  where  the  average  tem- 
perature of  June,  July,  and  August  is  about  70°  F. 
The  Department  of  Agriculture  designates  a  belt 
100  miles  in  width  on  either  side  of  this  summer 
isothermal  line  as  the  economic  beet-growing  zone. 
(See  frontispiece.)  That  this  deduction  is  well 
founded  is  evidenced  by  the  location  of  the  territory 
now  under  cultivation.  It  is  not  to  be  understood 
that  beets  do  not  mature  outside  of  this  compara- 
tively narrow  belt,  for  they  can  be  grown  in  prac-. 
tically  any  cultivatable  part  of  the  United  States. 
Parts  of  Mississippi  or  Tennessee  will  yield  as  large 
a  tonnage  as  corresponding  areas  in  Idaho  or  Colo- 
rado, but  the  sugar  content  of  the  crop  in  the 
humid  Southern  States  is  from  forty  to  sixty  per 

121 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGx^R 

cent  less  than  from  an  irrigated  crop  in  the  arid 
Western  States.  In  addition  to  this  prohibitory 
difference,  the  climatic  conditions  during  the  har- 
vesting and  milling  season  are  such  that  great 
losses  would  be  incurred. 

The  sugar  content  varies  from  year  to  year,  be- 
ing influenced  by  variations  in  the  seasons,  differ- 


^A-.'V 


Field  of  Beets  near  Albuquerque,  N.  M. 


ences  in  the  method  of  cultivation,  and  changes  in 
the  quality  of  the  seed.  The  margin  of  profit  is 
determined  by  so  many  factors  tliat  it  is  difficult 
to  sa}^  what  constitutes  the  minimum  sugar  content 
permitting  a  profitable  milling  of  the  crop,  but  it 

122 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES 

is  generally  conceded  that  under  present  competi- 
tive conditions  the  success  of  the  enterprise  is 
doubtful  unless  the  average  is  as  high  as  twelve 
per  cent.  If  we  may  judge  the  future  by  the  past, 
the  zone  will  be  much  extended  by  improvements 
in  breeding,  cultivation,  and  manufacture.  Were 
the  potential  beet  area  in  the  United  States  ex- 
ploited as  thoroughly  as  it  has  been  in  Germany, 
the  production  of  this  country  would  closely  rival 
Germany.  It  is  estimated  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  that  the  United  States  has  274,000,000 
acres  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  beets,  and  that 
if  this  area  were  cultivated  in  four  rotation  crops, 
beets  constituting  one,  the  annual  sugar  produc- 


TABLE   V 

Sugar  Facts  from  the  Beet-Growing  States,  1908 


States. 


Colorado  .  .  .  . 
Michigan  .  .  . . 
California..  .  . 

Utah 

Idaho 

Wisconsin  .  .  . 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Ohio 

New  York  .  .  . 
Washington.. 
Minnesota .  .  . 

Oregon 

Montana.  .  .  . 

Ari"o.ia 

Illinois 


<u       ^ 

-2iS 

3f^  O 

Acreage, 

^       *" 

1 

16 

110,000 

16 

81^00 

9 

55,500 

5 

28,600 

4 

18,500 

4 

17,900 

17,500 

12,000 

6,000 

4.300 

4,100 

4,000 

3,400 

3,000 

3,000 

i 

1.000 

Beet 

Tonnage 

(long  tons). 


1,100,000 

570,500 

550,000 

229,000 

148,000 

161,000 

122,500 

111,000 

48,000 

38,700 

22,000 

23,000 

21,000 

24,000 


6,000 


Sugar  Manu- 
factured 
(pounds). 


229,090,000 

148,900,000 

147,950,000 

48,000,000 

41 ,670,000 

32,500,000 

23,500,000 

23,310,000 

9,950,000 

7,900,000 

5,500,000 

4,650,000 

4,360,000 

4,900,000 

'1,200,006 


Percentage 

of  Sugar  in 

Beets. 


15.3 

17.11 

17.9 

16.3 

17.8 

15.0 


123 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

tion  would  be  15,000,000  tons.  There  are  now  400,- 
000  acres  in  cultivation,  which  is  more  than  double 
the  acreage  in  1901. 

Colorado  has  almost  one  third  of  the  total  acre- 
age,  and  yet  the   beet-sugar   industry   was   prac- 


1  J  • 


"^^J^^^^tMj^^fW^'  "^-^  ^ 


Field  of  Beets  near  Ithaca,  Mich. 


tically  in  its  experimental  stage  in  that  State  ten 
years  ago.  All  of  the  factories  except  one  have 
been  constructed  since  1901.  The  industry  now 
constitutes  the  leading  agricultural  source  of 
wealth  in  the  State.  Thirty-two  thousand  field 
laborers  were  required  in  1908  to  cultivate  and 
harvest  the  crop,  for  which  the  laborers  and  farm- 
ers received  $12,750,000. 

Michigan  is  second   in  acreage,   and  second   in 
output,  and  is  the  only  large  beet-growing  State 

124 


BEET-SUGAR   IXDUSTHY    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES 

having  no  irrigation.  The  industry  has  been  sub- 
ject to  more  fluctuations  and  vicissitudes  in  Michi- 
gan than  in  any  other  state,  but  has  so  adjusted 
itself  to  the  economic  conditions  as  to  stand  to-day 
on  a  sound  and  profitable  basis. 

The  factory  at  Spreckels,  Cal.,  has  a  daily 
capacity  of  3,000  tons  and  is  the  largest  beet- 
sugar  factory  in  the  United  States.  It  is  owned 
by  the  Spreckels  Sugar  Company,  which  is  also 
the  largest  refiner  of  raw  sugar  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

Utah  and  Idaho  comprise  a  large  contiguous 
sugar-beet  area,  and  in  the  richness  of  the  sugar 


Factory  of  Utah-Idaho  Sugar  Company  at  Nampa,  Idaho. 


content  these  two  states  are  only  rivaled  by  Cali- 
fornia. The  present  sugar  production  within  the 
states  is  four  times  the  domestic  consumption,  and 
yet  the  capacity  of  the  nine  factories  in  operation 

125 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

is  considerably  larger  than   the   supply   of  beets 
from  the  48,000  acres  in  cultivation. 

The  United  States  has  sixty-three  factories  in 
operation,  distributed  among  sixteen  states.  The 
average  yield  of  beets  per  acre  in  the  different 
states  varies,  but  California,  Colorado,  Utah,  and 
AVisconsin  lead  with  an  average  of  ten  tons  per  acre. 

The  total  production  in  1908  was  500,000  tons 
of  beet  sugar,  the  estimated  value  of  which  at 
the  factory  was  $45,000,000.  This  was  more  than 
double  the  output  in  1904.  AYe  have  already  seen 
that  the  cane-sugar  production  during  the  same 
year  was  347,000  tons.  During  the  past  decade  the 
cane-sugar  production  increased  about  10  per  cent, 
while  the  beet-sugar  production  increased  1,200  per 
cent.  To  meet  the  home  demand  it  was  necessary 
to  import  in  1908  916,000  tons  of  raw  sugar  from 
Cuba,  453,000  tons  from  Hawaii,  185,000  tons  from 
Porto  Rico,  45,000  tons  from  the  Philippines,  and 
more  than  350,000  tons  from  other  sugar-produc- 
ing countries.  The  total  sugar  import  was  valued 
at  $133,000,000,  which,  coupled  Avith  the  domestic 
sugar  consumed,  makes  the  present  cost  of  sugar 
to  the  people  of  the  United  States  about  $1,000,000 
per  day.  Practically  all  of  the  imported  sugar  is 
raw,  and  therefore  purchased  at  little  more  than 
half  the  retail  price  of  refined  sugar.  At  the  pres- 
ent rate  of  production  and  consumption,  we  are 

126 


•B 


Sugar  Beets.  This  pile  represents  ten  tons  of  sugar  beets  grown 
on  two-fifths  of  an  acre  of  land  at  the  Experiment  Station  Farm, 
at  Madison,  Wis. 


Twenty-three  Hundred-pound  Sacks  of  Granulated  Sugar.  This 
is  the  product  of  the  ten  tons  of  beets  in  the  picture  above.  The 
University  received  a  check  for  S44.32  from  the  Wisconsin  Sugar 
Co.  for  this  shipment.     This  is  at  the  rate  of  SI  10.80  per  acre. 

127 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

only  producing  one-fifth  of  the  sugar  consumed, 
but  have  a  sufficient  acreage  adapted  to  sugar  cane 
and  sugar  beets  to  easily  meet  the  home  demand. 
The  United  States  is  consuming  from  twenty-two 
to  twenty-five  per  cent  of  tlie  total  sugar  produc- 
tion of  the  w^orld,  exclusive  of  India's  crop,  accu- 
rate statistics  of  which  are  not  obtainable.  The 
per  capita  consumption  in  the  United  States  as 
compared  with  other  countries  is  outlined  in 
Table  II. 

The  cost  of  producing  either  cane  or  beet  sugar 
in  the  United  States  is  somewhat  higher  than  it  is 
in  the  largest  sugar-producing  countries,  because 
of  the  high  rate  of  wages  paid  in  this  country,  and 
because  of  the  general  economic  conditions  which 
are  experienced  in  any  industry  in  its  early  stages 
of  development.  The  beet-sugar  industry  must  be 
recognized  as  comparatively  a  new  industry  in 
this  country.  The  average  cost  of  producing 
cane  sugar  is  estimated  at  2J  to  3  cents  per 
pound,  and  the  average  cost  of  producing  beet 
sugar  is  from  3  to  3^  cents  per  pound.  The  abso- 
lute factory  cost  of  production  in  Germany  is  esti- 
mated at  1.95  cents  per  pound  by  the  most  careful 
statistics  obtainable.  The  average  cost  of  field 
labor  in  Germany  is  from  50  to  70  cents  per  day, 
as  compared  with  $1  to  $1.50  in  the  United  States. 
The  cost  in  France  differs  but  little  from  the  cost 

128 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY   IX   THE   UNITED    STATES 

in  Germany,  the  rate  of  wages  being  practically 
the  same  in  the  two  countries.  The  wages  of  farm 
laborers  and  of  unskilled  factory  laborers  in  Aus- 
tria is  from  15  to  30  cents  per  day,  which  enables 
her  to  produce  sugar  at  less  cost  than  any  other 
beet-growing  country,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  Holland.  Since  3J  cents  per  pound  is  about  the 
average  cost  of  making  sugar  in  this  country,  this 
represents  practically  the  amount  of  money  which 
is  paid  to  the  farmer,  the  farm  laborers,  and  the 
factory  workers.  About  one  half  cent  per  pound 
is  the  amount  paid  out  by  the  importers  and  re- 
finers to  the  laborers  on  the  imported  raw  sugar. 
The  fact  that  most  of  the  sugar  imported  is  refined 
in  the  United  States  is  not  so  significant,  in  the 
light  of  this  comparison.  On  the  basis  of  this  esti- 
mate $167,000,000  more  would  have  been  dis- 
tributed to  American  laboring  constituents  in  1907, 
if  the  United  States  had  produced  all  the  sugar 
consumed. 

The  average  cost  of  growing  beets  varies  consid- 
erably in  the  different  states.  California  reports 
an  average  of  $23  per  acre;  Utah,  $32  per  acre; 
Michigan,  $34  per  acre ;  and  Nebraska,  $28  to  $34 
per  acre.  The  average  yield  of  the  beet-growing 
states  is  7  to  10  tons  per  acre,  and  $5  is  about  the 
average  price  paid  per  ton.  The  producer,  there- 
fore, realizes  an  annual  profit  of  $15  to  $40  per 
10  129 


THE    STORY    OP    SUGAR 

acre  on  the  basis  of  the  present  price  and  the 
present  acreage  yield.  In  limited  areas  of  su- 
perior adaptation  and  under  good  cultivation  the 
yield  is  20  tons  i:>er  acre,  which  gives  a  profit  of  $50 
to  $60  per  acre.  The  consideration  of  these  figures 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  growing  of  beets 
offers  a  fair  profit  and  an  increasing  profit,  be- 
cause of  the  adaptability  of  beets  as  a  rotation  crop 
for  a  soil-conserving  system  of  cultivation.  The 
crop  is  subject  to  less  risk  than  most  of  the  crops 
which  bring  larger  returns.  It  is  drought  re- 
sistant, and  can  be  best  matured  by  irrigation. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  beet  crop  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  compete  successfully  on  land  which  is 
highly  adapted  to  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  pros- 
pect is  that  the  factories  will  continue  to  pay 
higher  prices  for  the  beets  both  because  the  growers 
will  demand  it,  and  because  the  prosperity  of  the 
manufacturers  will  permit  it,  as  the  industry  be- 
comes  more  firmly  established  and  the  output  in- 
creased. The  average  cost  of  beets  in  the  conti- 
nental countries  of  Europe  was  estimated  at  $5.75 
per  ton  in  1908,  and  yet  the  grower  of  the  beets 
produces  them  with  labor  which  costs  from  forty  to 
sixty  per  cent  less  than  must  be  paid  in  the  United 
States. 

An  improvement  in  the  American  method  of  con- 
tracting and  paying  for  the  crop  is  one  of  the  most 

130 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES 

needed  reforms  in  connection  with  the  beet-sugar 
industry.  At  various  points  in  the  beet-growing 
states  the  factories  are  experiencing  great  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  a  crop  sufficiently  large  to  sat- 
isfy the  capacity  of  the  factory.  Some  farmers  are 
refusing  outright  to  grow  beets,  while  others  ac- 
cept contracts  with  serious  doubting  as  to  what 
they  will  realize  on  them.  The  greatest  dissatis- 
faction on  the  part  of  the  grower  has  arisen  on  the 
question  of  farcing,  which  is  the  amount  deducted 
from  the  field  weight  of  the  crop  to  counterbalance 
the  losses  through  washing. 

Another  problem  which  confronts  the  factory 
owners  is  the  prolonging  of  the  harvesting  period. 
Beet-sugar  factories  are  expensive  in  construction 
and  operation,  and  represent  an  investment  of 
$300,00a  to  $1,500,000.  The  length  of  the  milling 
campaign  varies  in  different  states  from  sixty 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  days,  and  in  order 
to  get  a  period  of  this  duration,  it  is  necessary 
to  plant  the  crop  with  reference  to  a  successive 
maturing  by  plots.  The  average  duration  in  all  of 
the  states  except  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Idaho  is 
less  than  seventy-five  days,  or  approximately  one 
fifth  to  one  sixth  of  the  year,  and  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  the  investment  is  idle  and  the 
factory  force  must  seek  employment  elsewhere. 
The  great  loss  and  inconvenience  entailed  by  this 

131 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

method  is  obvious,  and  with  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  beet-sugar  industry  it  will  certainly 
be  necessary  that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  beet 
crop  be  siloed  for  preservation  until  they  can 
be  handled  by  the  factories.  This  both  increases 
the  cost  of  production  by  $2.50  to  $3  per  acre,  and 
incurs  a  slight  deterioration  in  the  beet,  but  the 
factories  will  ultimately  see  the  economy  of  paying 
more  for  the  crop  to  the  end  of  extending  the 
period  of  operation. 

The  factories  of  Michigan  and  California  import 
raw  cane  sugar  for  refining  during  the  non-milling 
season.  No  doubt  this  accounts  in  part  for  the 
prosperity  of  the  Michigan  manufacturers,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  climatic  conditions  are  less 
favorable  both  for  maturing  the  beets  and  for  mill- 
ing the  crop  than  exist  in  the  arid  and  semiarid 
states. 

There  is  much  room  for  improvement  in  the 
methods  of  cultivation.  The  average  tonnage  yield 
under  irrigation  in  this  country  is  not  as  large  as 
the  average  yield  in  Germany,  France,  and  Bel- 
gium, without  irrigation ;  and  yet  the  average  yield 
in  this  country  would  far  exceed  that  of  these  coun- 
tries if  the  same  methods  of  cultivation  were  in 
vogue.  This  is  as  strikingly  true  in  the  yield  real- 
ized on  other  crops.  The  average  w^heat  yield  in 
the  United  States  in  1906  was  13.8  bushels  per  acre, 

132 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY   IN   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Avliile  during  the  same  year  the  average  in  Austria 
was  17  bushels;  in  France,  19  bushels;  and  in  Ger- 
many, 28  bushels.  The  European  countries,  with 
less  fertile  land  but  with  more  careful  cultivation 
and  more  adequate  fertilization,  produced  larger 
staple  crops.  The  beet  is  not  an  exhaustive  crop, 
and  is  well  adapted  for  rotating  with  other  market- 
able and  profitable  crops.  The  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion are  being  rapidly  improved,  which  becomes 
more  urgent  with  the  rise  in  the  price  of  land  and 
the  closing  in  of  competitive  conditions.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  about  seven  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage 
planted  in  beets  is  abandoned  each  year.  This 
high  percentage  in  itself  shows  room  for  much 
improvement,  since  most  of  it  is  attributable  to  in- 
ferior cultivation. 

Although  most  of  the  United  States  factories  are 
improved  and  economical  types,  we  are  not  obtain- 
ing as  satisfactory  results  in  the  extraction  of  the 
sugar  as  are  obtained,  particularly  in  Germany, 
France,  and  Belgium.  The  average  per  cent  of 
raw  sugar  extracted  in  the  United  States  in  1908 
was  12.6  per  cent,  while  the  average  in  France  was 
12.6  (with  lower  average  sugar  content)  ;  in  Bel- 
gium, 14.7  per  cent ;  in  Austria,  17.2  per  cent ;  and 
in  Germany,  17.5  per  cent. 

The  benefits  of  the  beet-sugar  industry  to  com- 
munities are  reflected  in  the  industrial  activities  in 

133 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

other  lines,  and  in  the  standard  of  living  of  the 
laborers.     The    character    of    the    cultivation    re- 


Thinning  Beets. 


First  Cultivation  after  Thinning. 

quired  for  producing  the  largest  yield  of  beets  is 
such  as  can  only  be  supplied  by  intensive  cultiva- 

134 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

tion.  ]\Iuch  of  the  work  can  be  done  Avith  machin- 
ery, but  the  early  cultivation  and  thinning  must  be 
done  by  hand  and  with  the  hoe. 

The  German  i:)easants  have  the  idea  that  they 
hoe  sugar  into  the  beets,  and  this  is  not  far  from 
the  truth,  since  on  the  same  quality  soil  the  sugar 
content  varies  from  ten  to  eighteen  per  cent,  de- 
pending upon  the  methods  of  cultivation. 

To  obtain  an  adequate  working  force  for  the 
cultivation  of  an  area  to  meet  the  demands  of  a 
large  factorv,  it  is  necessarv  that  the  countrv  be 
injected  with  a  village  life,  so  as  to  make  accessible 
a  large  number  of  laborers  for  limited  areas.  It 
is  evident,  therefore,  that  beet  growing  affords  a 
larger  supporting  capacity'  than  the  grain  and 
forage  crops.  The  factory,  which  is  located  in 
the  midst  of  the  community,  also  requires  skilled 
laborers,  all  of  which  results  in  increasing  the  di- 
versity of  wants. 

Vast  changes  have  been  wrought  in  the  sugar- 
growing  districts  with  reference  to  diversified  pro- 
duction. The  sugar-beet  industry  has  especially 
stimulated  the  live-stock  industry.  ]\Iost  of  the 
land  which  is  now  utilized  in  the  irrigated  regions 
of  the  west  for  growing  sugar  beets  was  formerly 
used  only  as  Avild  grazing  land,  and  under  that 
res'ime  the  methods  were  careless  and  the  breeds 
indifferent.    AVith   the   introduction   of   profitable 

135 


THE    STORY   OF   SUGAR 

cultivation  came  the  necessity  of  placing  the 
live-stock  industry  on  a  different  basis.  The  old 
native  breeds  were  supplanted  by  imported  stock 
from  the  Eastern  and  Central  States  and  from 
European  countries,  and  now  the  live-stock  pro- 
duction is  placed  upon  a  more  profitable  basis. 
To  illustrate :  Instead  of  sheep  being  kept  for 
the  wool  profit,  they  are  kept  primarily  for  the 
production  of  lambs,  and  the  fleece  of  these  highly 
bred  varieties  is  so  much  larger  than  was  obtained 
from  the  native  stock  that  the  wool  increase  more 
than  covers  the  expense  of  maintenance. 

The  sugar-beet  industry,  in  stimulating  and  en- 
couraging the  rotation  of  crops,  is  doing  a  service 
which  is  probably  greater  than  any  other  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  ultimate  individual  and  national 
prosperity.  Wherever  a  large  sugar  factory  is 
located,  it  devolves  upon  the  management  to  sup- 
ply to  the  community  a  well-trained  agriculturist 
and  a  staff  of  capable  assistants  to  travel  over  the 
producing  areas,  and  in  an  educational  way  super- 
intend the  planting  and  production  of  the  crops. 
They  not  only  give  their  attention  to  the  specific 
beet  crop,  but  to  the  rotation  crops  under  cultiva- 
tion, which  are  of  equal  importance,  since  the  profit 
of  the  beet  crops  of  future  years  depend  in  a  large 
measure  on  the  conservation  of  soil  fertility. 

Diversified  factory  production  is  beginning  to 

136 


BEET-SUGAE   INDUSTRY   IX   THE   UNITED    STATES 

spring  up  in  many  of  tlie  beet-growing  regions. 
The  conditions  are  becoming  more  favorable  in  the 
irrigated  districts  for  the  development  and  utiliza- 
tion of  cheap  water  power.  The  raw  products, 
such  as  wool,  cotton,  and  lumber,  are  accessible; 
and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  until  local  fac- 
tories will  supply  the  most  important  commodities 
consumed  by  the  ever-increasing  population.  Di- 
versified industrial  activities  always  have  the  effect 
of  increasing  the  general  prosperity,  which  makes 
it  but  a  step  to  the  acquirement  of  better  educa- 
tional advantages.  As  a  result,  good  schools  and 
colleges  are  established  to  meet  the  educational 
needs  of  the  people,  while  the  factories  and  fields 
supply  their  physical  wants. 

From  the  standpoint  of  present  economic  condi- 
tions, it  seems  too  sanguine  to  hope  for  the  United 
States  to  become  an  exporter  of  sugar,  but  it  is 
altogether  plausible  to  hope  that  the  domestic  pro- 
duction will  continue  to  increase  at  even  a  more 
rapid  rate  than  it  has  in  the  past  decade,  which 
will  mean  that  the  next  generation  will  be  making 
their  own  sugar.  On  the  basis  of  present  cost  we 
can  scarcely  hope  to  lower  the  price  of  refined 
sugar  by  becoming  our  own  producers,  since  the 
average  price  of  ref.ned  sugar  in  the  United  States 
does  not  give  a  wide  margin  above  the  absolute 
cost  of  factory  production  at  the  present  scale  of 

137 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

wages.  From  the  standpoint  of  distributed  pros- 
perity the  reduction  in  the  price  of  sugar  from  5 
cents  to  4  cents  per  pound  is  not  so  desirable  as  to 
be  independent  of  foreign  supplies,  which  would 
mean  the  payment  of  more  than  $150,000,000  an- 
nually to  American  sugar-producing  laborers.  AYe 
do  not,  however,  advocate  the  attempt  to  expand 
the  domestic  sugar  industry  with  undue  rapidity, 
believing  that  the  better  and  more  stable  conditions 
will  be  conserved  by  a  steady  development,  carry- 
ing with  it  improved  methods  both  in  cultivation 
and  in  manufacture.  This  will  give  time  for  per- 
fecting the  industry  more  than  could  possibly  be 
achieved  by  any  spasmodic  development;  and  will 
at  the  same  time  permit  the  adjustment  of  the  in- 
dustry to  its  rightful  place  among  the  many  com- 
petitive industries.  Unless  the  future  is  entirely 
different  from  the  past,  the  consumption  Avill  con- 
tinue to  increase,  and  the  adaptations  of  the  by- 
products will  also  become  more  varied  and  more 
valuable. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE   BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY   IN   FOR- 
EIGN   COUNTRIES 

Until  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  world's 
sugar  supply  came  chiefly  from  cane-growing  coun- 
tries, the  most  important  of  which  were  the  islands 
of  the  AYest  Indies,  the  East  Indies,  Brazil,  and 
Louisiana.  In  1825  the  total  beet-sugar  produc- 
tion in  Europe  was  only  5,000  tons,  but  in  1850  it 
was  190,000  tons.  Since  1850  the  beet-sugar  indus- 
try has  increased  with  phenomenal  rapidity,  and 
the  cane-sugar  industry  has  been  steadily  ex- 
panded, with  the  exception  of  a  few  island  pro- 
ducers. At  this  time  the  world's  supply  is  almost 
equally  divided  between  cane  and  beets  (49.7  per 
cent  beet  and  50.3  per  cent  cane),  but  the  beet- 
sugar  production  is.  increasing  far  more  rapidly 
than  cane.  In  1890,  43  per  cent  of  the  world's  pro- 
duction was  beet  and  57  per  cent  cane.  So  far, 
both  sources  of  sugar  have  been  no  more  than  able 
to  meet  the  natural  demand.  The  competition^, 
however,   is   becoming   keener   each  year,    and   is 

139 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

destined  to  cause  marked  shifting  in  the  fields  of 
production  for  the  maintenance  of  an  economic 
balance. 

In  1908,  4,860,000  acres  were  cultivated  in  beets 
in  Europe,  which  produced  44,626,000  tons  of 
beets,  giving  a  total  beet  sugar  production  of 
7,041,000  tons.  It  seems  certain  that  a  much  larger 
area  of  the  earth's  surface  is  adapted  to  an 
economic  production  of  beets  than  to  cane.  In  the 
consideration  of  the  production  of  the  two  kinds 
of  sugar  the  fact  that  the  beet  matures  best  in  the 
temperate  zone,  while  the  cane  is  indigenous  to  the 
tropics,  militates  strongly  in  favor  of  beet  produc- 
tion. The  tropics  not  only  offer  conditions  which 
are  not  conducive  to  diligent  labor  and  thorough 
cultivation,  but  occasion  such  a  luxuriant  growth 
of  grass  and  weeds  as  to  greatly  complicate  the 
problem  of  cane  cultivation. 

The  cultivation  of  sugar  beets  has  not  developed 
to  a  status  of  commercial  importance  except  in  the 
continental  countries  of  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States. 

GERMANY 

Germany  easily  ranks  first  among  the  beet-grow- 
ing countries,  producing  almost  one  third  of  the 
total  world's  supply.  Her  production  in  1907  was 
2,223,521   metric   tons    (2,204   pounds),   of   which 

140 


BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

1,098,835  were  exported.  For  producing  this  enor- 
mous total  1,110,000  acres  of  beets  were  cultivated, 
which  gave  an  average  of  12.7  tons  of  beets  per 
acre,  and  1.99  tons  of  sugar  per  acre. 

"With  the  increased  production  in  Germany  has 
come  a  corresponding  increase  in  consumption.  In 
1886  Germany  produced  1,012,000  tons  of  sugar, 
and  the  average  per  capita  consumption  in  that 
year  was  16.5  pounds.  The  above  figures  show  that 
from  1886  to  1907  the  production  was  more  than 
doubled,  and  as  the  per  capita  consumption  in  1907 
was  41.1  pounds,  it  is  obvious  that  the  rate  of  con- 
sumption increased  somewhat  more  rapidly  than 
the  rate  of  production. 

Considerable  changes  are  in  progress  in  Ger- 
many with  reference  to  the  centers  of  beet  pro- 
duction, the  methods  of  cultivation,  and  the  meth- 
ods of  manufacture.  During  the  past  decade  there 
has  been  much  reorganization,  which  has  resulted 
in  the  improvement  of  factory  equipment  and 
the  elimination  of  inferior  plants.  In  1887,  400 
plants  were  in  operation,  Avhile  in  1909  there 
were  358. 

The  beet-sugar  industry  of  Germany  is  confined 
chiefly  to  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  East  Prussia,  and 
West  Prussia.  The  region  around  Magdeburg  has 
long  been  noted  for  its  industry,  and  Magdeburg  is 
still  the  largest  manufacturing  center ;  but  there  is 

141 


a 

c3 


o 


« 
o 

o 

a 

K 
<5 

O 
D 

sj 


1-1 


142 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

in  progress  a  rapid  development  of  the  beet-sugar 
industry  in  both  East  and  AVest  Prussia. 

The  German  producers  are  aided  by  a  special 
government  bounty  on  all  domestic  sugar  pro- 
duced, and  an  additional  bounty  on  all  sugar  ex- 
ported. 

Although  Germany  can  produce  beet  sugar  at 
less  cost  than  the  United  States — the  cost  in  Ger- 
many being  a  little  less  than  2  cents  per  pound, 
while  the  cost  in  the  United  States  is  probably  not 
less  than  3  cents  per  pound — yet  the  retail  price  of 
sugar  to  the  German  consumer  is  higher  than  the 
retail  price  in  this  country,  on  account  of  the  con- 
sumption tax  levied  by  the  government. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

Austria-Hungary  is  making  substantial  progress 
in  the  development  of  the  beet-sugar  industry.  In 
1908,  816,432  acres  were  in  cultivation,  which  pro- 
duced 1,109,000  tons  of  sugar.  The  total  amount 
consumed  in  the  country  was  556,000  tons,  this 
being  less  than  40  per  cent  of  the  total  production. 
This  gives  a  per  capita  consumption  of  about  24 
pounds.  The  United  Kingdom  purchased  90  per 
cent  of  the  total  sugar  exported.  The  expansion  of 
the  industry  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the 
export  in  1908  was  15.5  per  cent  larger  than  in 

143 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

1907.  The  consumption  tax  in  Austria-Hungary 
is  3.4  cents  per  pound,  and  the  average  retail  price 
of  sugar  in  1908  was  7.4  cents  per  pound. 

There  are  204  sugar  factories  in  the  Empire,  dis- 
tributed as  follows:  119  in  Bohemia,  61  in  Moravia 
and  Silesia,  and  24  in  Hungary.  Aussig,  on  the 
Elbe,  is  the  most  important  port  for  the  exporta- 
tion of  sugar  by  water. 

The  average  cost  of  production  in  Austria  is  es- 
timated at  1.85  cents  per  pound,  which  is  consider- 
ably below  the  cost  of  production  in  the  other  large 
beet-sugar-producing  countries.  This  is  because  of 
the  low  wages  which  prevail  throughout  the  coun- 
try, which  vary  from  15  to  30  cents  per  day  in 
Austria,  and  40  to  60  cents  per  day  in  Hungary. 

The  Germans  have  had  a  great  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  sugar  industry  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  the  methods  of  manufacture  in 
vogue  are  for  the  most  part  patterned  after  the 
most  approved  types  of  Germany. 

RUSSIA 

The  beet-sugar  industry  has  developed  in  Russia 
with  such  rapidity  during  the  past  two  decades  as 
to  give  her  first  place  in  acreage,  and  third  in 
sugar  production.  From  the  standpoint  of  soil 
and  climatic  adaptation,  this  country  has  the  pos- 

144 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

sibility  of  even  exceeding  Germany  in  production, 
and  thereby  become  the  largest  beet-sugar-produc- 
ing country.  The  total  production  in  1908  was 
1,403,000  tons  of  sugar  from  1,360,000  acres.  The 
Russian  people,  being  light  consumers  of  sugar — 
17.6  pounds  per  capita — have  a  considerable  sur- 
plus for  export.  In  1850  the  per  capita  consump- 
tion in  Russia  was  one  half  pound,  which  was  less 
than  that  of  any  other  country  of  Europe.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  consumption  has  in- 
creased at  a  phenomenal  rate  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  beet-sugar  industry  into  that  country. 
Although  the  cost  of  unskilled  labor  in  Russia  is 
low,  the  methods  of  cultivation  and  manufacture 
are  so  inferior  that  the  cost  of  producing  sugar  in 
that  country  is  estimated  at  2.3  cents  per  pound, 
which  is  greater  than  in  any  other  beet-growing 
country  except  the  United  States.  Russia  has  a 
consumption  tax  of  2  cents  per  pound,  and  the 
cost  to  the  consumer  is  from  8  to  10  cents 
per  pound  for  lump  sugar,  which  is  more  gener- 
ally used  in  continental  Europe  than  granulated 
sugar. 

The  growing  of  beets  is  now  limited  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  fertile  Black  Belt  country  of  East- 
ern Russia,  and  Kieff  is  the  center  of  the  refining 
industrv. 

The  Russian  surplus  is  exported  to  Finland,  Tur- 
11  145 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

key,  Germany,  Engiand,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
other  Asiatic  countries. 


FRANCE 

Although  France  has  not  kept  pace  with  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary,  and  Russia  in  the  expan- 
sion of  the  beet-sugar  industry,  there  has  been 
in  progress  in  recent  years  a  steady  improvement 
in  the  methods  of  cultivation  and  manufacture. 
There  has  been  a  gradual  decrease  in  the  number 
of  factories,  and  a  corresponding  enlargement  and 
improvement  of  the  factory  equipment.  In  1883 
France  had  483  factories  in  operation,  which  pro- 
duced 406,000  tons  of  sugar.  In  1908  there  was  a 
total  of  251  factories,  which  produced  719,900  tons 
of  sugar.  Although  the  quality  of  the  beet  has 
been  improved  greatly,  France  has  increased  her 
output  during  the  past  two  decades  less  than  any 
other  beet-growing:  country.  The  domestic  con- 
sumption in  1908  was  596,243  tons,  making  a  per 
capita  consumption  of  36  pounds,  as  compared  with 
6.5  pounds  in  1850.  The  retail  price  of  sugar  in 
Paris  in  1908  was  6^  to  7  cents  per  pound. 

The  growing  of  beets  for  the  manufacture  of 
alcohol  is  an  important  industry  in  France.  The 
output  from  this  source  in  1907  was  30,262,000 
gallons.     Much  of  this  alcohol  is  denatured  and 

146 


siern  Suga.   lie^flu^. 

BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

used  for  heating,  ligliting,  varnish  manufacture, 
the  manufacture  of  ether,  and  explosives.  The 
areas  cultivated  in  beets  are  confined  chiefly  to,  the 
plains  of  Flanders,  Picardy,  Brie,  Beauce,  and 
Limagne. 

BELGIUM 

On  account  of  various  limitations,  the  beet  in- 
dustry is  practically  stationary  in  Belgium.  The 
production  in  1907-8  was  235,000  tons,  which 
was  less  than  the  production  in  the  two  preceding 
years,  and  about  equivalent  to  the  average  annual 
production  during  the  past  six  years.  The  quality 
of  the  beets  grown  is  good  and  the  tonnage  large, 
the  sugar  content  of  the  1908  crop  being  11.7  per 
cent,  and  the  yield  12.5  tons  per  acre,  which  was 
a  higher  tonnage  average  than  made  by  any  other 
beet-growing  country.  The  consumption  tax  is  2 
cents  per  pound,  and  the  per  capita  consumption 
21.5  pounds.  The  average  price  of  sugar  in  Brus- 
sels is  5 J  cents  per  pound,  which  is  a  lower  price 
than  exists  in  any  other  European  country  except 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  price  of  sugar  in  Bel- 
gium was  SJ  cents  higher  per  pound  prior  to  the 
Brussels  sugar  convention. 

Antwerp  has  long  figured  prominently  as  a 
sugar-refining  center  for  Europe,  and  is  still  the 
important  refining  center  in  Belgium,  both  for  the 

147 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

domestic-sugar    and    the    raw-sugar   import    from 
cane-growing  countries. 

HOLLAND 

The  domestic  production  of  beet  sugar  and  the 
colonial  production  of  cane  sugar  are  exploited 
vigorously  and  economically  by  the  Dutch.  One 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  acres  are  cultivated 
in  beets,  which  give  a  production  of  173,000 
tons  of  sugar.  The  factories  are  large  and  well 
equipped,  as  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  total 
crop  is  handled  by  twenty-eight  j^lants.  AVages 
are  low,  which,  combined  with  economy  of  manu- 
facture, enables  Holland  to  produce  sugar  at  1.5 
to  1.6  cents  per  pound.  The  importation  of  raw 
sugar  is  large,  making  possible  a  large  exportation 
of  refined  sugar,  which  in  1906  aggregated  161,596 
tons.  The  per  capita  consumption  is  41.5  pounds, 
which  is  70  i^er  cent  larger  than  the  consumption 
in  Belgium,  and  yet  the  retail  price  of  sugar  in 
Holland  is  more  than  60  per  cent  higher  than  in 
Belgium.  The  average  price  in  Amsterdam  from 
1904  to  1907  was  9.4  cents  per  pound,  attributable 
to  the  high  consumption  tax  of  4.6  cents  per  pound. 

ITALY 

Although  only  limited  areas  of  Italy  are  adapted 
to  beet  culture,  the  industry  is  advancing  steadily. 

148 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

In  1908,  150,223  tons  of  sugar  were  manufactured 
from  a  crop  of  108,725  acres.  The  average  cost  of 
production  is  estimated  at  3  cents  per  pound.  The 
consumption  tax  in  Italy  is  5.7  cents  per  pound, 
and  the  retail  price  of  sugar  13  to  14  cents  per 
pound.  The  tax  is  higher  than  in  any  other 
country  of  Europe,  and  the  price  to  the  con- 
sumer higher.  The  prohibitory  price,  the  pov- 
erty of  the  peasant  peoples,  and  the  prevailing 
foodstuffs  make  the  per  capita  consumption  in 
Italy  8.3  pounds,  which  is  lower  than  in  any 
other'  sugar-producing  country,  except  Bulgaria, 
Greece,  and  Servia. 

SWEDEN 

The  beet-sugar  industry  has  developed  rapidly 
in  Sweden,  and  now  stands  second  only  to  the 
dairy  industry  in  the  list  of  agricultural  produc- 
tions. Eighty-one  thousand  acres  are  in  cultiva- 
tion, and  the  production  in  1908  was  109,500  tons, 
which  about  meets  the  home  demand,  the  total 
import  of  sugar  and  molasses  in  1908  being  only 
$16,654.  The  consumption  is  46.8  pounds  per 
capita,  which  is  65  per  cent  above  the  general  aver- 
age for  all  Europe.  The  cultivation  is  concen- 
trated in  Scania,  and  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing centers  are  Helsingborg,  Kjeflinge,  and 

149 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

Karpalund.     The  average  price  in  Stockholm  is  7J 
cents  per  pound. 

SPAIN 

Beets  cannot  be  grown  successfully  in  Spain  ex- 
cept in  the  higher  valleys  and  on  the  plateaus 
which  either  have  an  average  rainfall  or  are  sub- 
ject to  irrigation.  In  contrast  to  the  countries  dis- 
cussed, the  industry  in  Spain  is  declining,  having 
in  1908  74,131  acres  in  cultivation,  as  compared 
with  98,000  in  1907,  and  82,668  in  1906.  The  pro- 
duction in  1908  was  106,000  tons,  which  was  al- 
most equal  to  the  consumption. 

DENMARK 

Production  in  Denmark  is  practically  stationary, 
the  acreage  in  1908  being  37,065,  and  in  1906  37,- 
559.  The  production  in  1908  w^as  52,700  tons.  The 
per  capita  consumption  is  73.6  pounds,  which 
makes  the  people  of  Denmark  the  heaviest  Eu- 
ropean consumers  of  sugar,  excepting  the  United 
Kingdom.  Beets  are  cultivated  chiefly  on  the 
islands  of  this  small  kingdom. 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

The  British  Isles  have  just  taken  the  first  steps 
toward  the  development  of  the  beet-sugar  indus- 

150 


BEET-SUGAR    INDUSTRY    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

try  in  the  home  country.  The  first  factory  is  be- 
ing constructed  in  the  western  part  of  Lincoln- 
shire, with  a  capital  of  $450,000.  Already  2,000 
acres  are  under  contract  for  supj^lying  beets  dur- 
ing tlie  first  season  of  the  factory 's  operation.  The 
contract  price  for  the  beets  from  this  acreage  is 
$4.38  per  ton.  For  several  years  the  British  Gov- 
ernment has  been  making  some  experiments  on  the 
possibilities  of  the  beet-sugar  industry  in  the  dif- 
ferent islands,  and  the  prospects  seem  sufficiently 
favorable  for  a  commercial  beginning.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  undertaking  depends  upon  a  number 
of  conditions  which  are  so  different  from  those  to 
be  found  in  the  other  beet-growing  countries  that 
no  final  opinion  can  be  given  until  the  industry 
has  progressed  further.  It  is  hoped  by  the  more 
sanguine  advocates  that  the  growing  of  beets  may 
become  an  important  innovation  in  the  agricultural 
system  and  economy.  In  Germany,  which  is  the 
largest  beet-growing  country,  the  economic  and 
social  conditions  are  so  different  from  those  exist- 
ing in  Great  Britain,  that  it  is  difficult  to  discuss 
the  possibilities  by  a  comparison.  In  Germany  the 
beets  are  largely  produced  on  small  farms,  but  the 
landlord  system  of  the  United  Kingdom  makes  a 
different  system  of  production  and  control  neces- 
sary. More  than  one  half  of  the  land  of  England 
and  Wales  is  owned  by  2,500  persons,  and  three 

151 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

fourths  of  it  is  owned  by  38,200.  Under  this  sys- 
tem the  labor  conditions  have  become  more  "un- 
favorable in  recent  years,  largely  due  to  the  con- 
tinued increase  of  the  city  population  at  the 
expense  of  the  rural  population  and  prosperity. 
In  1891  28.3  per  cent  of  the  total  population  was 
rural,  while  in  1901  only  23  per  cent  was  rural. 
Any  change  in  the  agricultural  system  which 
would  lead  to  the  cultivation  and  control  of  smaller 
areas  would  be  a  great  national  benefit.  It  will 
take  something  of  this  order  to  turn  the  tide  of 
emigration,  which  has  already  assumed  alarming 
proportions.  In  1894  the  emigrants  out  of  the 
United  Kingdom  represented  a  proportion  of  9  to 
10,000,  but  in  1909  the  proportion  of  those  leaving 
was  40  to  10,000. 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 

Small  quantities  of  beet  sugar  are  produced  in 
Roumania  (12,500  tons),  Switzerland  (3,370  tons), 
Bulgaria  (3,080  tons),  Greece  (2,080  tons),  Servia, 
Turkey,  and  Canada  (12,500  tons).  In  all  of  these 
countries,  except  Canada,  the  price  of  sugar  is 
high,  and  the  per  capita  consumption  from  8  to 
12  pounds. 

The  Canadian  sugar  industry  is  not  making  sat- 
isfactory progress,  and  the  home  demand  is  filled 

152 


BEET-SUGAR   INDUSTRY    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

largely  by  imports,  which  in  1907  were  valued 
at  $11,411,000,  distributed  as  follows:  from  the 
United  States,  $258,000;  from  Great  Britain,  $1,- 
233,000 ;  and  from  all  other  countries,  $9,920,000. 


CHAPTER    XI 
MANUFACTURE   OF    SUGAR 

CANE 

Milling. — Cane  was  used  as  a  food  many  cen- 
turies before  the  art  of  extracting  the  juice  by 
machinery  and  separating  the  sugar  was  discov- 
ered. The  crushing  was  effected  by  the  teeth,  and 
the  juice  extracted  by  the  suction  of  the  mouth. 
AVhere  the  stalks  were  too  hirge  to  be  handled  by 
the  human  masticating  machine  they  were  pounded 
Avitli  mallets  or  clubs  until  reduced  to  a  convenient 
size  and  form.  This  i^rimitive  method  is  still  in 
vogue  among  the  tribes  of  Central  Africa,  and  the 
sugar  cane  in  stalk  is  one  of  the  common  articles 
of  exchange  and  trade. 

The  pioneer  methods  of  milling  in  the  cane- 
growing  countries  of  the  world  were  of  close  re- 
semblance. The  first  crushers  consisted  of  wooden 
rollers,  usually  vertical,  and  articulated  by  the 
use  of  wooden  cogs  and  pinioned  cylinder  shafts. 
Naturally  they  were  crude  and  inefficient,  twenty- 

154 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

five  per  cent  being  the  average  amount  of  juice 
extracted  when  operated  by  hand  power.  Al- 
though sugar-making  had  been  a  recognized  indus- 
try for  more  than  a  century  in  the  tropical  lands 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Company. 

The  Old  Way  of  Extraction. 


of  the  New  World  before  it  was  successfully 
launched  in  the  American  colonies,  the  old  ver- 
tical wooden  roller  was  the   machine  set  up   for 

155 


The  Primitive  Wooden  Rollers. 


More  Efficient  Power  and  Rollers. 

156 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 


"  working  up  "  the  sugar  crop.  Soon  the  wooden 
rollers  were  supplanted  by  yertical  cast-iron  roll- 
ers, which  in  construction  and  manipulation  dif- 
fered but  little  from  the  vertical  wooden  rollers. 
This  represented  a  distinct  advance  in  the  economy 
of  sugar  production,  increasing  the  total  extrac- 
tion from  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  juice  to  more 
than  forty  per  cent.   The  next  advance  was  marked 


Nine-roller    Mill   with   a  Three-roller   Crusher. 
(Fulton  Iron  Works.) 

by  the  introduction  of  steam  power,  increase  in  the 
size  of  rollers,  and  the  introduction  of  the  horizon- 
tal type.  These  raised  the  efficiency  of  extraction 
to  sixty-five  per  cent.  For  some  years  steel  rollers 
have  been  used  exclusively  in  the  larger  mills,  and 
the  rollers  have  increased  from  three  to  nine. 
Mau}^  of  the  mills  have  shredders  or  corrugated 
crushers,  through  which  the  cane  is  passed  before 

157 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

conveying  to  the  smooth  rollers.  The  cane  is  pre- 
pared in  this  way  for  an  equalized  pressure,  and 
in  mills  of  the  most  approved  types  80  to  90  per 
cent  of  the  juice  is  extracted.  In  addition  to  the 
mechanical  improvement  in  construction  has  been 
added  the  economical  benefits  of  partial  diffusion, 
which  consists  of  saturating  the  bagasse  with  water 
and  passing  it  through  the  mill  several  times  con- 
secutively. 

The  capacity  of  the  mill  is  determined  by  the 
size  and  velocity  of  the  rollers.  A  maximum  veloc- 
ity does  not  result  in  a  maximum  extraction. 
Regularity  of  feeding  is  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  determining  tine  efficiency  of  a  mill,  as 
the  extraction  must  be  imperfect  in  all  zones  of 
diminished  pressure. 

The  dift'usion  method,  universally  used  in  sepa- 
rating the  sugar  content  from  beets,  is  being  suc- 
cessfully applied  to  cane  in  a  few  plants.  It  has 
not,  however,  advanced  beyond  the  experimental 
stages.  Under  this  method  the  crushing  process 
is  supplanted  by  cutting  the  cane  diagonally  into 
small  chips  by  means  of  revolving  knives,  and  the 
chips  are  carried  by  automatic  hoists  into  the  dif- 
fusion batteries,  which  do  not  differ  from  those 
used  in  beet  factories  except  in  shape. 

Reduction  and  Separation. — The  old  method 
was  known  as  the  ''  open-kettle  "  process.     The 

158 


MAKUFACTURE    OF   SUGAR 

equipment  for  this  was  simple  and  cheap,  and  cor- 
respondingly slow  and  inefficient.  The  juice  was 
conveyed  from  the  mill  through  a  spout  into  two 
or  more  square  wooden  vats  stationed  in  the  mill 
room,  which  adjoined  the  boiling  room.  A  wire 
sieve  was  fastened  to  the  corner  of  the  vat  to  strain 


Primitive  Sugar  House. 


out  the  pieces  of  stalk  and  pith.  Milk  of  lime  was 
then  added  to  the  cane  juice  to  the  point  of 
neutrality,  after  which  it  was  ready  to  be  con- 
veyed to  the  boiling  room.  The  boiling  room  was 
equipped  with  four  kettles  in  a  line,  to  which  the 
following  names  were  applied:  grande  (largest), 
flambeau,  syrop,  and  battery.     These  kettles  were 

159 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

set  in  solid  masonry  and  separated  by  a  distance 
of  about  fourteen  inches.  The  furnace  was  under 
the  battery,  the  last  in  the  series,  and  the  one  in 
which  the  final  reduction  must  be  made  to  a 
standard  specific  gravity.  The  furnace  was  main- 
tained at  as  uniform  temperature  as  possible  from 
the  beginning  of  the  season  until  the  close.  Dur- 
ing evaporation  all  the  kettles  were  kept  boiling 
except  the  grande.  The  milk-of-lime  treated  juice 
was  conveyed  to  the  grande  and  the  boiling  started 
in  it.  The  lime  caused  the  coagulation  of  the  albu- 
minous constituents  which  rose  to  the  top  in  the 
form  of  a  green  scum.  When  the  scum  thickened 
sufficiently  to  break  marked  the  stage  for  skim- 
ming. This  stage  of  the  process  was  known  in 
sugar-house  parlance  as  yaicing.  The  coagulation 
and  clarification  were  effected  in  ten  to  twelve  min- 
utes, after  which  the  juice  was  transferred  to  the 
flambeau.  Here  an  additional  scum  was  formed 
from  impurities  which  had  escaped  in  the  grande. 
If  the  proper  amount  of  lime  has  been  added  the. 
juice  enters  the  flambeau  almost  transparent  and 
of  a  pale  yellowish  color.  If  too  much  has  been 
added  it  is  easily  detected  by  the  alkaline  smell 
and  a  reddish  color,  while  an  inadequate  supply 
would  be  evidenced  by  the  scum  adhering  to  the 
sides  of  the  grande  and  the  flambeau.  In  the  last 
kettle,    the   battery,    the   boiling    continued    until 

160 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

the  sirup  showed  a  consistency  for  granulation — 
for  being  "  struck,"  in  the  words  of  the  sugar 
makers.  This  was,  and  is  now,  the  most  critical 
point  in  the  whole  process  of  sugar  manufacture. 
A  storage  reservoir  was  provided  adjacent  to  the 
battery  for  receiving  the  discharge  in  the  shortest 
time  possible.  From  the  reservoir  the  sirup  flowed 
through  channels  into  coolers  for  granulation. 
These  granulation  tanks  were  constructed  of  wood, 
six  to  seven  feet  in  length,  four  to  five  feet  in 
width,  and  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  in  depth.  As 
soon  as  transferred  to  the  granulaters  the  sirup 
w^as  thoroughly  stirred  with  a  large  spoon  to  re- 
duce it  to  a  uniform  consistency.  When  a  thin 
crust  of  crystals  began  to  form  on  top,  the  stirring 
operation  was  repeated  to  scatter  the  crystals  regu- 
larly through  the  sirup,  Avhich  acted  as  centers 
of  activity  in  the  continued  granulation.  The 
crystallization  of  one  charge  required  from  six  to 
fourteen  hours. 

Potting  was  the  last  operation  in  the  ' '  open-ket- 
tle "  process,  which  consisted  of  the  removal  of  the 
sugary  mass  from  the  coolers  to  hogsheads.  The 
adhering  molasses  ran  through  holes  in  the  bottom 
of  hogsheads  into  the  molasses  cistern  over  which 
the  hogsheads  were  placed  in  rows.  This  part 
of  the  process  took  from  three  to  six  weeks.  The 
separation  of  the  molasses  from  the  raw  sugar  was 
12  161 


THE    STORY   OF   SUGAR 

in  some  places  accomplished  by  placing  the  boiled- 
down  sirup  in  conical  earthen  molds.  After  the 
crystallization  had  progressed  through  the  mass 
the  hole  in  the  apex  of  the  mold  was  opened  and 
the  exposed  top  of  the  sugar  then  covered  w^ith 
moist  clay.  The  moisture  from  the  clay  perco- 
lated through  the  sugar  mass,  driving  the  molasses 
before  it.  On  removal  from  the  mold  the  apex 
end,  which  still  contained  a  large  amount  of  sirup, 
was  drawn  off,  and  the  remaining  yellow  loaf  of 
sugar  was  ready  for  the  mold.  This  method  is 
in  vogue  in  many  parts  of  China  to-day. 

The  old  method  of  refining  raw  sugar  was  to 
dissolve  it  in  lime  w^ater,  add  bullocks'  blood  in 
the  proportion  of  10  gallons  to  6,000  pounds  of 
sugar,  and  heat.  The  impurities  were  absorbed 
by  the  coagulating  blood.  Animal  charcoal,  which 
has  a  high  affinity  for  coloring  matter,  was  intro- 
duced in  the  United  States  in  1833,  and  this  is  now 
one  of  the  important  purifying  agents  in  the  re- 
fineries. 

It  is  now  customary  to  use  sulphurous-acid  gas 
or  bisulphite  of  lime  prior  to  treating  the  cane 
juice  with  lime.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  disin- 
fecting the  solution,  and  assists  in  bleaching  and 
clarification.  The  purification  of  cane  juice  is 
effected  more  easily  than  in  the  case  of  beets,  since 
it  neither  requires  carbonatation  nor  an  excess  of 

162 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 


lime.  If  the  sugar  content  is  removed  from  the 
cane  by  diffusion  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  and  bring  the  solution  to  boiling. 

TABLE   VI 
Showing  Stages  in  Refining  Raw  Sugar 

Raw  Sugar 

Mixed  with  water 

Passes  into  centrifugal  machine 


Sirup  washings 

Add  milk  of  lime 

Pass  through  bag  filters 


Washed  sugar 

Melt  by  use  of  steam 

Add  milk  of  lime 
Pass  through  bag  filters 


Pass  through   bone-ash  filters 

Pass  into  vacuum  pans 

I 
Pass  to  mixer 

Pass  to  centrifugal  machine 


Sirup 

Evaporate  down  in  vacuum  pans 

I 
Remelts 


Sugar 

Dry 

Grade 


Barrel  sirup. 


Remnant  sugar  passed  back  into  process. 
163 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

Modern  Refining. — It  has  always  been  charac- 
teristic of  the  cane-sugar  industry  that  the  refiniii^i;' * 
centers  are  remote  from  the  sources  of  raw-sugar 
production.  This  finds  its  explanation  in  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  cane  is  grown  in  the  tropics,  where 
the  climate  is  hostile  to  the  white  man,  making 
laborers  inefficient  and  skilled  labor  difficult  to  ob- 
tain. These  regions  are  also  remote  from  the  centers 
of  largest  consumption,  and  in  most  cases  remote 
from  fuel  supplies.  The  chief  exploiters  of  the 
sugar  industry  have  always  resided  in  the  temper- 
ate zone,  and  it  is  but  natural  that  as  much  of  the 
production  as  possible  has  been  shifted  to  their  re- 
spective native  countries,  where  the  economic  con- 
ditions for  manufacturing  are  far  more  favorable. 
By  shipping  the  product  as  raw  sugar  the  trans- 
portation problem  is  also  simplified,  since  it  is  sus- 
ceptible to  concentration  in  bulk  in  storage  and 
shipping,  which  would  be  entirely  impracticable 
for  the  refined  product.  New"  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Baltimore  became  the  refining  centers  for  the 
imported  raw"  sugars  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  in  the  United  States  im- 
provements in  methods  of  refining  increased  more 
rapidly  than  improvements  in  the  milling  methods 
in  the  cane-growing  states. 

The  raw  sugars  differ  widely  in  chemical  and 
physical  properties,  depending  upon  the  grade  and 

164 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

the  producing  country.  Its  classified  constituents 
are  cane  sugar,  fruit  sugar,  soluble  salts,  insoluble 
salts,  water,  and  extractives  or  coloring  matter. 
The  cane  and  fruit  sugar  determine  the  sugar 
yield,  but  the  expense  of  refining  is  determined  by 
the  nonsugar  constituents  present.  The  raw  sugars 
are  first  sampled  with  reference  to  grade,  and 
mixed  accordingly.  In  this  way  the  approximate 
yield  is  predetermined  by  taking  inventory  of  the 
producing  parts. 

The  stages  in  the  refining  of  raw  cane  sugar  are 
so  similar  to  those  of  the  beet-sugar  factory  that 
the  description  of  a  typical  refinery  will  be  brief. 
The  raw  sugar  is  first  mixed  with  water  and  passed 
into  the  centrifugal  machine,  in  which  the  sugar  is 
both  washed  and  separated  from  the  sirup  con- 
tent. The  washed  sugar  is  placed  in  the  melters, 
in  which  the  melting  is  either  performed  by  the 
contact  of  live  steam  or  by  the  melting  pan  being 
surrounded  by  steam  coils  (steam  jacket).  To  this 
resultant  sirup  from  the  remelts  milk  of  lime  is 
added  to  the  point  of  neutrality,  at  which  the  lime 
combines  with  the  coloring  and  gummy  elements 
contained  to  produce  a  flocculent  precipitate. 
From  the  melters  the  sirup  is  pumped  into  tanks 
in  the  hlotv-up  room.  The  sirup  washing  is  here 
treated  with  milk  of  lime  and  passed  through  bag 
filters,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  be  mixed  with 

165 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

the  molasses  from  the  melted,  washed  sugar,  and 
conveyed  to  the  bone-ash  filters.  The  sirup  solu- 
tion is  decolorized  by  passing  through  the  bone-ash 


Centrifugal  Machine. 


or  animal  charcoal  filters.  The  sirup  is  trans- 
ferred to  these  charcoal  cisterns  at  a  temperature 
of  180°  F.J  and  the  charcoal  is  kept  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  150°  to  160°  F.  The  clear  sirup  from  the 
charcoal  filters  is  now  boiled  in  vacuum  pans, 
boiled  rapidly  but  under  slight  vacuum.  In  the 
vacuum  pan  the  boiled  mass  takes  a  decidedly  crys- 

166 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

talline  condition.  When  ready  to  be  discharged 
the  mass  (mass-cuite)  is  dropi:)ed  by  means  of  a 
valve  in  the  vacuum  pan  into  the  reheater  or 
mixer,  in  which  a  temperature  for  maximum  crys- 
tallization is  maintained.     From  the  mixers  it  is 


Copyright   by  Keystone  View  Coiiipauy. 

Vacuum  Pan. 


passed  into  the  centrifugal  machines  for  the  final 
separation  of  remnant  molasses.    The  sugar  is  trans- 

167 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

f erred  to  the  drying  drums,  which  are*  equipped 
with  sieves  of  different  size  for  separatijig  the  crys- 
tals with  reference  to  marketable  grades.  The 
sirup  from  the  last  stage  of  centrifugal  separation 
is  evaporated  down  in  vacuum  pans  the  second 
time.  The  resultant  sugar  is  known  as  remelts, 
and  is  passed  back  into  the  process.  The  final  mo- 
lasses product  is  boiled  with  some  fresh  sirup  until 
reduced  to  a  purity  of  forty-five  per  cent,  at  which 
stage  it  is  ready  for  the  barrel. 

BEETS 

The  harvesting  of  the  beets  consists  of  pulling 
them  from  the  earth,  removing  the  top  by  cutting 
t)ff  the  crown  of  the  root,  and  transporting  to  the 
factory.  The  pulling  is  done  by  hand  and  by 
specially  adapted  plows  called  ''  pullers."  The 
topping  is  done  by  hand  with  a  large  topping  knife 
or  corn  knife.  If  the  cultivation  has  been  shallow 
the  beets  grow  out  of  ground,  making  heavy  top- 
ping necessary.  The  beets  are  hauled  on  wagons  to 
local  loading  points  on  the  railroad.  In  many 
beet-growing  communities  the  wagons  are  assem- 
bled into  trains  and  moved  by  traction  engines  of 
thirty  to  sixty  horse  power.  In  loading  into  cars 
the  beets  are  dumped  from  the  wagons  on  an  in- 
clined grate  which  permits  the  dirt  to  fall  through. 

168 


■    MiVNUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

The  cars  <3n  arrival  at  tlie  factories  are  unloaded 
into  storage  bins  or  siloes. 

It  is  essential  that  the  beets  be  cleansed  of  all 
adhering    earth,    stones,    straw,    wood,    and    small 


Loading  Sugar  Beets  for  the  Factor!'. 
0  ^ 

roots.  This  is  accomplished  by  various  washing 
devices.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  revolving 
drum   with    perforations   was   the    most    common. 

169 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  beets  were  simply  carried  into  this  large  drum, 
which,  on  being  filled  with  water,  was  set  in  mo- 
tion.    This  method,  however,  was  inefficient  and 


Cupyii.-ilit   by   KL'\stciim   \'ie\v   CDiniiaiiy. 

Beets  Stored  in  Sheds  with  V-shaped  Bins  Having  Canals 
Underneath    to    Carry    them   to    Washing    Drum. 


has  been  supplanted  entirely  both  in  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States.  The  most  approved  type  of 
washing  consists  of  the  transfer  of  the  beets  from 

170 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

the  storage  bins  iuto  a  flume  of  varying  length, 
tlirough  which  water  is  flowing  rapidly.  This 
hydraulic  carrier  conveys  the  beets  rapidly  to 
large  cylindrical  troughs,  which  are  equipped  with 
a  series  of  revolving  wooden  blades,  so  set  as  to 
keep  the  beets  individually  in  motion,  and  force 
them  persistently  toward  the  end  of  the  trough 
receiving  the  clear  water.  From  this  they  pass 
into  a  stone-removing  machine,  the  simplest  type 
of  which  is  a  large  tank  in  which  revolve  steel 
blades  so  set  as  not  to  reach  the  bottom.  The 
water  moves  so  rapidly  through  this  tank  as  to 
keep  the  beets  afloat,  and  the  friction  from  the 
revolving  blades,  the  water,  and  the  beets  removes 
effectively  the  foreign  material,  which  drops  to  the 
bottom  and  is  not  disturbed  by  the  blades. 

In  the  United  States  no  separate  process  is  used 
for  drying  the  beets  as  they  come  from  the  washer. 
In  certain  countries,  like  France,  which  levy  a  tax 
on  the  raw  material  instead  of  the  finished  sugar 
product,  it  is  quite  necessary  to  dry  the  beets  be- 
fore transferring  them  to  the  scales.  This  is  usu- 
ally done  by  passing  them  on  to  a  metallic  sieve 
slightly  inclined,  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  length, 
which  is  equipped  with  a  double-shaker  motion. 
Passing  slowly  over  this  sieve  the  water  is  drawn 
from  the  beet,  and  any  remaining  portions  of  ad- 
hering foreign  matter  is  likely  to  be  removed.    The 

171 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 


drying  sieve  connects  with  an  elevator  carrier, 
which  conveys  the  beets  to  the  weighing  room  situ- 
ated in  the  top  of  the  factory. 


Copyright  by   Keystone  View  Coinijaiiy. 

Washing  the  Beets  with  Revolving  Brushes  to  Remove 
Dirt    and    Sand. — Beet-Sugar    Industry,    Canada. 


All  factories  are  equipped  with  automatic  scales, 
which  dump  the  load  when  a  certain  weight  has 
been  received.    It  is  convenient  and  economical  to 

172 


MANUFACTURE    OF   SUGAR 

have  the  weighing  room  near  the  top  of  the  factory 
so  as  to  facilitate  the  further  journey  of  the  beets 
by  gravity. 

The  next  stage  is  the  cutting  of  the  beets  pre- 
paratory to  the  sugar  extraction.  Prior  to  the  gen- 
eral adoption  of  the  diffusion  process  it  was  neces- 
sary to  pulp  the  beets,  but  since  the  extraction  of 
the  juice  by  pressing  the  pulp  was  so  wasteful  and 
inefficient  as  to  be  entirely  abandoned,  we  shall 
not  consume  the  space  in  describing  the  process. 
The  end  to  be  attained  under  the  present  system  is 
to  slice  the  beets  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  the 
largest  surface  contact  of  the  individual  pieces, 
called  "  cossettes, "  and  of  such  shape  and  size  as 
to  enable  each  piece  in  the  presence  of  water  to 
maintain  its  identity.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that 
if  the  beets  were  cut  in  squares  that  the  pieces 
would  fit  so  closely  together  as  to  prevent  the  ob- 
ject aimed  at.  The  most  approved  method  of  slic- 
ing is  to  cut  the  beets  by  a  multitude  of  curved 
knife  blades,  fitted  on  to  a  circular  horizontal 
plate,  which  revolves  rapidly  around  a  vertical 
shaft.  It  may  be  said  that  a  great  variety  of  shapes 
result  from  the  same  slicing  machine,  and  from 
the  different  models  in  use,  but  in  all  of  them  the 
policy  of  obtaining  thin,  irregular  pieces  is  ad- 
hered to. 

Mathieu  de  Dombasle  introduced  a  maceration 

173 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

process  for  the  extraction  of  the  juice  from  beets 
without  pulping,  rasping,  or  grating.  The  beets 
were  cut  into  thin  slices  by  a  rotary  machine,  after 
which  they  were  carried  through  a  series  of  tanks 
containing  hct  water.  The  handicap  to  this  proc- 
ess was  that  the  dilution  with  the  water  made 
granulation  difficult,  and  it  was  also  subject  to 
easy  fermentation.  It  did  not  come  into  extensive 
use,  and  little  progress  was  made  until  1849,  when 
Rousseau,  Perier,  Pozzoz,  and  Jelinek  (of  Austria) 
perfected  the  double  carhonatation  process,  which 
was  the  greatest  achievement  toward  placing  the 
manufacture  of  beet  sugar  on  an  economic  basis. 
This  made  the  diffusion  process  practicable,  and 
Seelowitz,  an  Austrian  sugar  manufacturer,  fur- 
ther improved  the  process  in  its  economy  of  op- 
eration. 

The  principle  of  diffusion  is  simple,  in  that  it 
only  involves  the  abstracting  of  the  saccharine 
juice  from  the  beet  by  the  water  contact,  which 
starts  up  an  exchange  (osmosis)  through  the  par- 
tition wall  (cellulose)  of  the  vegetable  cells  of  the 
water  without  for  the  sugar  juice  within. 

A  diffusion  battery  consists  of  a  series  of  cylin- 
drical vessels  which  communicate  with  each  other 
by  pipes,  so  arranged  that  the  juice  issuing  from 
the  bottom  of  one  diffuser  flows  into  the  top  of  the 
next.     These  tanks  are  equipped  with  a  trapdoor 

174 


MAXUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 


for  charging  with  fresh  beet  slices,  and  a  bottom 
door  through  which  the  exhausted  beet  slices  are 
discharged.     As  the  juice  is  passed  from  one  dif- 


DiFFusiON  Battery. 

175 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

fuser  to  the  next  it  becomes  of  greater  density, 
until  ultimately  it  will  have  acquired  a  density  ap- 
proximately equal  to  the  undiluted  beet  juice,  at 
which  point  the  osmotic  action  practically  ceases, 
indicating  that  the  extraction  is  completed.  One 
of  the  great  advantages  of  the  diffusion  process 
is  that  very  small  quantities  of  the  vegetable  al- 
bumen and  gums  pass  through  the  cell  walls  into 
the  water  solution.  Heat  facilitates  the  abstraction, 
so  that  the  cells  of  the  diffusion  batteries  are  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  158°  to  176°  F. 

The  next  step  is  to  remove  the  diffusion  liquors 
from  the  pulp  by  specially  designed  presses,  which 
are  so  constructed  as  to  give  a  slow  application  of 
pressure  and  as  to  cause  a  minimum  bruising  of 
the  "  cossettes.'' 

Evaporation. — Raw  beet  juice  cannot  be  evapo- 
rated on  account  of  the  pectic  and  albuminoid  im- 
purities contained,  which  convert  the  fluid  into  a 
gelatinous  mass  by  continued  heating.  These  im- 
purities are  largely  rem^oved  by  adding  1.5  to  3 
per  cent  of  milk  of  lime  to  the  juice,  heating,  and 
the  passing  of  carbon  dioxide  through  the  limed 
solution.  This  method  is  known  as  the  carhonata- 
tion  process  or  the  Jelineh  process.  The  heating 
of  the  limed  solution  causes  the  coagulation  and 
precipitation  of  most  of  the  impurities,  and  the  in- 
jection of  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  brings  into  solu- 

176 


MANUFACTURE    OF   SUGAR 

tion  the  sugar  which  has  combined  with  the  lime. 
The  solution  at  this  stage  is  forwarded  to  the  filter 
presses,  and  after  filtering  the  carbonatation  is 
repeated  by  adding  0.002  to  0.010  part  of  lime, 
and  carbon  dioxide  gas  to  the  point  of  saturating 
the  lime.  The  solution  is  heated  to  boiling,  which 
is  effected  by  a  coil  of  steam-conveying  pipe.  The 
last  treatment  of  purification  preparatory  for  the 
evaporators  is  to  charge  the  solution  with  sulphur 
dioxide  gas,  which,  by  removing  more  lime  and 
other  impurities,  leaves  the  juice  of  light  yellow 
color. 

The  old  expensive  method  of  evaporating  in 
open  pans  over  a  naked  fire  has  been  entirely  dis- 
carded in  all  beet  factories,  and  is  in  use  in  but 
few  places  in  the  world  in  the  reduction  of  cane 
juice.  The  invention  of  the  vacuum  pan  in  the 
first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  first 
marked  step  of  improvement  in  the  method  of 
evaporation.  The  efficiency  and  economy  of  re- 
duction was  still  further  perfected  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  century  by  the  introduction  of  the 
multiple-effect  evaporators,  which  consist  of  a 
series  of  pans  so  connected  as  to  result  in  a  pro- 
gressively higher  vacuum.  In  this  system  the 
exhaust  steam  of  the  engine  as  well  as  virgin  steam 
is  utilized  for  heating  the  first  pans,  and  the 
evolved  steam  from  the  evaporating  juices  is  con- 
13  177 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

ducted  to  the  next  cylinder  to  continue  the  process 
of  which  it  constitutes  a  part.  In  the  multiple- 
effect  evaporators  eighty  to  eighty-five  per  cent  of 
the  water  contained  in  the  diffusion  liquor  is  re- 
moved in  the  form  of  steam.  The  heating  in  the 
evaporators  brings  the  sirup  to  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.2  to  1.25.  It  is  then  conveyed  to  tanks  for  treat- 
ment with  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  soda,  for  the 
removal  of  the  remaining  impurities,  and  is  again 
charged  with  sulphur  dioxide  for  bleaching.  The 
next  stage  is  to  pass  it  into  a  vacuum  pan  called  tlie 
strike  pan,  in  which  it  is  further  evaporated  to  the 
point  of  crystallization.  ]\Iuch  skill  must  be  exer- 
cised at  this  stage  both  in  the  boiling  and  in  the  ad- 
dition of  fresh  thinner  sirup  to  the  pan  to  regulate 
the  growth  of  the  crystals,  or  the  sugar  grain. 
Boiling  is  continued  until  only  five  or  six  per  cent 
of  water  remains.  The  sugar  mass  is  now  known  as 
mass-cuite.  It  contains  a  A^arying  amount  of  mo- 
lasses enveloping  the  crystals  or  grains.  To  obtain 
the  largest  yield  a  high  vacuum  is  maintained 
which  results  in  soft  sugars,  but  a  lower  vacuum 
must  be  employed  in  producing  granulated  sugars. 
The  molasses  is  separated  from  the  sugar  by 
whirling  in  centrifugal  machines,  which  change 
the  color  of  the  mass-cuite  from  brown  to  light  yel- 
low. Centrifugal  machines  were  first  used  suc- 
cessfully in  1860.     The  sugar  ("  first  sugar  ")   is 

178 


MANUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

conveyed  to  storage  bins,  and  the  molasses  is  car- 
ried back  to  the  vacuum  pan  for  boiling  down  to  a 
mass-cuite.  The  resultant  "  second  sugar  "  is 
dark,  and  must  be  dissolved  in  water  and  boiled 
with  juice  from  the  evaporator  to  convert  it  into 
white  sugar.  The  molasses  from  this  evaporation 
is  either  utilized  as  a  by-product,  or  treated  by 
the  osmose  process  for  the  removal  of  the  sugar. 
Since  granulated  sugar  is  ninety-nine  and  one  half 
to  ninety-nine  and  three  fourths  per  cent  pure, 
the  molasses  contains  all  of  the  remaining  impuri- 
ties from  the  cane  juice  which  have  not  been  re- 
moved in  the  purification  processes.  These  im- 
purities, the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
potash  salts,  will  not  permit  the  sugar  of  the  mo- 
lasses to  crystallize  by  further  evaporation.  If, 
however,  a  series  of  frames  covered  by  tightly 
stretched  parchment  paper  be  fitted  together  side 
by  side  and  the  heated  molasses  given  access  to 
one  side  of  the  parchment  while  hot  water  is  placed 
in  contact  with  the  other  side,  there  starts  up  an 
exchange  between  these  two  liquids  of  different 
densities.  A  part  of  the  potash  salts  leaves  the  mo- 
lasses, passes  through  the  parchment  and  enters  the 
water  and  some  of  the  water  comes  through  to  take 
the  place  of  the  deserting  impurities.  The  molas- 
ses comes  out  diluted  but  freed  of  some  impurities. 
By  evaporation  a  certain  amount  of  brown  sugar 

179 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

is  obtained,  and  in  some  factories  this  process  is 
repeated  two  or  three  times,  leaving  a  final  molas- 
ses by-proclnct  so  impure  as  to  be  only  fit  for  fer- 
tilizer and  stock  food. 

Drying  is  effected  either  by  placing  the  sugar  in 
heated  drums,  or  by  spreading  out  on  floors.  The 
motion  which  accompanies  the  drying  period 
breaks  up  the  crystals,  so  that  this  is  called  the 
granulation  stage. 

The  amount  of  sugar  present  in  any  solution  is 
readily  determined  by  the  use  of  the  polariscope. 


Reading  the  Per  Cent  Sugar  with  the  Polariscope. 


Though  this  method  of  determination  does  not  give 
absolutely  correct  estimates  of  the  sugar  content 
it  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  most  practical  pur- 
poses. 

180 


MAXUFACTURE    OF    SUGAR 

The  different  grades  of  commercial  sugar  are  ob- 
tained by  different  methods  of  washing  and  granu- 
lation. For  obtaining  the  extra  white  grade,  it  is 
necessary  to  Avash  the  sugar  with  steam,  which 
causes  the  loss  of  a  certain  amount  of  sugar  by 
dissolving  it  and  passing  it  into  the  molasses  drain- 
off.  If  soft  white  sugar  is  desired,  the  process  is 
stopped  after  passing  through  the  centrifugals. 
The  granulated  grades  are  obtained  by  controlling 
the  crystallization  in  the  granulators,  and  by  sieve 
grading.  The  cube  and  tablet  grades  are  but  the 
granulated  sugars  shaped  in  molds,  and  the  soft 
white  and  yellow  sugars  of  the  market  are  par- 
tially refined  grades. 


CHAPTER    XII 
SIRUPS 

Sirup  and  molasses  are  words  which  are  used 
synonymously  by  many  persons,  but  in  the  char- 
acter and  origin  of  the  commodities  they  are  to  be 
distinguished.  Sirup  is  an  original  product  from 
sugar  cane,  sorghum,  and  the  sugar  maple,  ob- 
tained by  evaporating  the  juice  or  sap  down  to  a 
certain  consistency,  while  molasses  is  a  by-product 
from  cane  or  beet-sugar  factories. 

The  sirup  production  in  the  United  States  has 
fluctuated  with  reference  to  the  above  sources,  and 
the  production  is  relatively  decreasing.  The  most 
important  factors  in  regulating  the  production  are 
the  increased  output  of  molasses,  the  lowering  of 
the  price  of  cane  sugar  placing  home-made  sugar 
sirups  within  reasonable  reach,  the  increased  cost 
of  labor,  the  exhaustion  of  maple  orchards  through 
clearing,  and  the  great  increase  in  the  variety  of 
other  sweets  prepared  for  the  table. 

Louisiana  and  Texas  are  the  only  states  that  cul- 

182 


SIRUPS 

tivate  cane  for  the  commercial  production  of  sugar, 
but  a  varying  amount  is  grown  in  Florida,  Missis- 
sippi, Alabama,  Georgia,  Arkansas,  and  South  Caro- 
lina for  the  manufacture  of  sirup.  Practically  all 
of  the  product  is  consumed  within  the  states  in 
which  it  is  produced. 

Sorghum  makes  a  healthful  and  palatable  sirup, 
but  has  never  been  utilized  successfully  in  the 
manufacture  of  sugar.  Tenne&see,  Missouri,  Tex- 
as, Kentucky,  and  Kansas  produce  more  than  one 
half  of  the  total  sorghum  output  of  the  United 
States,  which  aggregates  about  20,000,000  gallons 
per  year.  This  sells  at  forty  to  fifty  cents  per 
gallon  on  the  farms  when  offered  for  sale.  The 
cultivation  of  sorghum  increased  rapidly  from 
1860  to  1880,  but  the  decline  subsequently  has  been 
as  conspicuous.  The  increase  following  1860  was 
due  to  the  high  price  of  sugar  during  and  after 
the  Civil  AYar,  and  the  resultant  poverty  which 
reigned  throughout  the  Southern  and  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States. 

Sorghum  is  a  plant  which  thrives  best  in  the 
temperate  zone,  but  has  never  been  cultivated  on 
a  large  scale  except  in  parts  of  China.  Most 
farmers  who  elect  to  make  it  a  farm  crop  culti- 
vate a  small  acreage  which  will  produce  enough 
sirup  to  meet  the  home  demand.  The  average 
yield   is   fifty   to   odjc   hundred   gallons   per   acre, 

183 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

depending  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  cul- 
tivation. 

Cane  sirup  is  a  primary  product  from  cane  juice 
and  should  commend  itself  for  human  consump- 
tion, since  it  not  only  has  a  pleasing  flavor,  but 
lacks  the  impurities  which  appear  in  concentrated 
form  in  molasses.  It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is 
a  general  preference  for  the  light-colored  sirups 
and  molasses,  as  these  almost  without  exception  are 
either  glucose  sirups  or  a  less  desirable  form  of  by- 
product molasses. 

For  the  manufacture  of  sirup  the  cane  sugar 
must  be  converted  into  invert-sugars,  or  the  sugar 
will  crystallize  in  the  sirup.  Crystallization  is  pre- 
vented by  leaving  the  acids  in  the  juice,  which  on 
heating  assist  to  convert  the  cane  sugar  into  in- 
vert-sugar. The  invert-sugars  do  not  crystallize 
either  on  cooling  or  by  agitation.  Since  the  acids 
are  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  lime,  treatment 
therewith  is  withheld  in  the  evaporation  of  cane 
juice  for  the  manufacture  of  sirup.  Eapid  evapo- 
ration is  necessary  for  the  most  efficient  separation 
of  the  sugar  from  the  sirup,  but  slow  boiling  is  de- 
sired in  the  manufacture  of  sirup,  since  it  per- 
mits a  thicker  sirup  formation  without  the  crys- 
tallization of  sugar.  Sirups  should  be  evaporated 
almost  to  the  point  of  crystallization,  as  the  more 
viscous  it  is  the  less  liable  it  is  to  ferment.    If  the 

184 


SIRUPS 

Beaume  hydrometer  is  used  to  determine  the  spe- 
cific gravity,  34  to  35  is  the  consistency  aimed  at 
for  the  American  varieties  of  cane. 

The  sap  of  maple  trees  has  for  centuries  been 
utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  both  sirup  and 
sugar.  It  still  constitutes  an  industry  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Central  Europe,  but  is  de- 
clining with  the  clearing  of  the  forests  and  under 
the  severe  competition  of  cheap  adulterants  and 
imitations. 

The  sugar  maple  in  the  United  States  has  a  wide 
geographic  range,  extending  from  northern  New 
England  into  the  southern  part  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains,  and  as  far  west  as  Montana.  More 
than  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  total  maple-sugar 
output  is  produced  by  the  North  Atlantic  States, 
while  about  the  same  per  cent  of  the  maple-sirup 
output  is  produced  by  the  North  Central  States. 
The  maple-sugar  production  is  now  running  from 
10,000,000  to  12,000,000  pounds  per  year,  and  the 
sirup  production  about  2,000,000  gallons  per  year. 
Vermont  and  New  York  produce  two  thirds  of  the 
maple  sugar,  and  Ohio,  New  York,  and  Indiana 
two  thirds  of  the  total  maple  sirup.  The  maple- 
sugar  industry  has  steadily  declined  since  1850,  at 
which  time  the  total  annual  yield  was  more  than 
50,000,000  pounds.  The  sirup  production  has  not 
declined  so  rapidly  as  in  the  case  of  sugar,  by 

185 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 


reason  of  the  greater  demand  for  the  sirup  and  the 
larger  j^rofits  therefrom. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  and  sirup  from  the 
maple  sap  is  a  simple  process.    The  harvest  begins 


Copyriijht  by  Keystoue   View  Company. 

A  Sugar-maple  Orchard — Gathering  the  Sap. 

with  the  first  thaws  of  spring,  which  start  the  sap 
to  flowing  through  the  cellular  arteries.  This  is 
obtained  from  the  tree  by  boring  holes  one  half  to 
three  quarter  inch  in  diameter  and  one  inch  deep, 
into  which  small  funnels  or  spigots  are  inserted. 
The  rapidity  of  the  flow  depends  on  the  tempera- 

186 


SIRUPS 

ture,  the  size  and  age  of  the  tree,  and  the  duration 
of  time  since  the  tree  was  tapped.  Periodically 
the  sap  is  collected  in  buckets  and  carried  to  the 
boiling  station.  Formerly  the  sap  was  evaporated 
in  open  kettles,  but  evaporating  pans  are  now  used 
exclusively.  It  is  customary  to  have  two  evaporat- 
ing pans  which  are  communicative  through  a 
spigot.  The  sap  is  boiled  down  in  part  in  the  up- 
per one,  and  at  regular  intervals  is  conveyed  into 
the  lower,  in  which  the  reduction  is  completed. 
Four  gallons  of  sap  produce  about  one  pound  of 
sugar,  and  an  average  size  tree  will  run  at  least 
twelve  gallons  of  sap  i  i  one  season.  The  sugar 
content  varies  from  2.75  to  5  per  cent. 

It  is  believed  that  the  sap  of  the  maple  tree  was 
utilized  by  the  American  Indians  prior  to  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  The  sugar  and  the  sirup 
represented  a  prized  luxury  in  the  homes  of  the 
pioneers.  Not  only  was  it  used  in  the  household 
for  cooking  purposes,  but  was  a  standard  sweet 
for  the  table.  It  also  served  an  important  pur- 
pose in  the  social  order,  for  maple  sugar  was  passed 
to  invited  guests  just  as  any  modern  refreshment 
or  drink  is  served  in  a  well-appointed  home  of 
to-day. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

CANDY,    A   NATIONAL   LUXUEY 

Candy  has  steadily  maintained  its  place  as  a 
popular  luxury  since  that  shrewd  Roman  baker, 
Julius  Dragatus,  made  the  first  sugar  plums  and 
offered  them  for  sale  on  the  streets  of  the  world's 
capital  city.  This  was  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  through- 
out the  long  subsequent  period  this  sugary  concoc- 
tion, so  satisfying  to  the  ^'  sweet  tooth,"  has  been 
manufactured  in  all  countries  and  the  demand  has 
steadily  increased.  Its  manufacture  and  uses  have 
naturally  fluctuated  in  the  different  countries  with 
the  price  of  sugar,  but  even  when  this  commodity 
was  commanding  almost  prohibitory  prices  for  con- 
sumption, sugar  candies  continued  to  be  made,  and 
pushed  their  w^ay  steadily  and  persistently  into 
the  remotest  marts  of  trade.  The  increase  in  con- 
sumption has  been  no  more  striking  than  the 
progress  achieved  in  its  varied  and  attractive 
preparations.     Each  nation  has  developed  the  art 

188 


CANDY,.  A   NATIONAL    LUXURY 

of  manufacture  in  accordance  with  its  own  pe- 
culiar tastes,  which  are  both  cultivated  and  catered 
to  by  its  most  gifted  confectionery  artists.  So  true 
is  this  that  the  purchase  of  candies  in  different 
countries  conve^'s  to  the  foreign  purchaser  a  cer- 
tain distinct  impression  of  racial  characteristics 
and  customs. 

The  candy  habit  is  one  that  is  not  easily  changed, 
and  many  will  forego  the  pleasure  of  the  sweets 
unless  the  kinds  for  which  they  have  acquired  a 
delectable  taste  can  be  obtained.  The  New  York 
candy  importers,  therefore,  find  themselves  under 
the  necessity  of  purchasing  candy  supplies  from 
the  most  remote  regions  of  the  world  to  satisfy  the 
demand  of  emigrants  who  happen  to  be  from  the 
respective  countriei.  Th«  confectioners'  stores  car- 
rying imported  gocds  are  particularly  interesting 
to  the  American  visitor,  who  is  accustomed  to  see- 
ing only  domestic  candies.  The  odorous  atmos- 
phere of  the  place  insti  ^ctively  leads  the  visitor 
to  first  inspect  the  different  foreign  varieties 
through  the  discriminating  olfactory,  and,  verily, 
the  Oriental  candies  have  a  smell  all  their  own. 
There  are  at  least  four  different  classes  from  Asi- 
atic countries  carried  by  the  New  York  importers, 
and  it  is  altogether  probable  that  some  of  these 
varieties  represent  more  nearlj^  the  ancient  forms 
than  any  others  existing  in  the  world. 

189 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  Chinese  have  long  had  the  art  of  making  a 
variety  of  candies,  and  they  also  take  particular 
pleasure  in  manufacturing  it  into  curious  shapes 
and  forms  for  marketing.  One  of  the  most  inter- 
esting of  these  is  the  candy  orange  and  the  candy 
egg,  which  is  nothing  more  than  the  orange  peel 
or  the  egg  shell  filled  with  some  variety  of  native 
candy,  but  manipulated  in  such  a  way  that  the 
purchaser  cannot  find  the  opening  through  which 
the  original  content  w^as  ejected  and  the  sweet  in- 
jected. To  obtain  the  edible  portion,  therefore, 
it  is  necessary  to  peel  the  "  orange  "  or  break  the 

' '   pcroc  ' ' 

Few  readers  realize  that  the  annual  candv  con- 
sumption  in  the  United  States  costs  the  enormous 
sum  of  $500,000,000.  We  are  not  only  unrivaled 
by  any  other  country  of  the  world  in  the  consump- 
tion of  candy,  but  consumed  more  in  1909  than  all 
other  countries  reporting  candy  manufacture. 

New  York  City  is  the  largest  consuming  center 
in  the  world  both  as  to  total  consumption  and  per 
capita  consumption.  In  fact.  New  York  consumed 
one-tenth  of  the  total  product,  but  contains  a  little 
less  than  one-sixteenth  of  the  total  population.  If 
all  the  candy  consumed  in  this  city  had  been 
shipped  in  on  the  railroad,  it  would  have  required 
12,500  cars  to  have  carried  the  supply.  That  is, 
it  would  take  five  trains  of  candy  per  week  of  fifty 

190 


CANDY,    A   NATIONAL    LUXUBY 

cars  each  to  snppl}^  the  demand.  Probably  one  rea- 
son that  New  York  is  such  a  large  consumer  is  be- 
cause of  the  large  percentage  of  foreign  population, 
since  the  foreign  emigrant  of  American  cities  is  by 
far  the  largest  consumer,  while  the  native  poor  of 
the  same  cities  are  only  second  to  the  emigrant  in 
the  extent  to  which  they  satisfy  this  desire.  At  first 
thought  we  Avould  expect  the  wealthier  classes  to 
be  the  largest  consumers  of  candy,  but  such  is  not 
the  case.  They  are,  of  course,  the  largest  con- 
sumers of  the  high-priced  candies,  but  there  are  at 
least  ten  pounds  of  the  cheaper  grades  sold  to 
each  pound  of  the  high-priced  varieties.  There  is 
an  economic  reason  why  our  poor  are  the  great 
candy  consumers,  since  their  standard  of  living 
is  so  low  and  the  food  commodities  consumed  so 
inferior  that  they  have  an  abnormal  desire  and 
relish  for  even  the  cheaper  sweets.  Not  only  does 
candy  appeal  to  the  taste,  but  it  is  a  nutritious 
food  and  serves  the  added  purpose  of  satisfying 
the  appetite  of  the  consumer,  which  in  the  case  of 
the  poorest  classes  is  always  seeking  satisfaction. 

The  consumption  of  candy  has  increased  more 
rapidly  in  this  country  than  the  consumption  of 
sugar,  and  yet  we  are  individually  the  largest  con- 
sumers of  sugar  in  the  world.  Statistically,  Great 
Britain's  per  capita  sugar  bill  exceeds  ours,  but 
the  latter  country  is  a  very  large  exporter  of  pre- 

191 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

serves,  jams,  jellies,  canned  fruits,  and  candies, 
while  the  United  States  exports  comparatively  lit- 
tle of  these  commodities.  ]\Iaking  allowance  for 
this  part  of  the  United  Kingdom's  sugar  consump- 
tion, which,  though  accredited  to  the  country,  is 
not  consumed  by  the  countrymen,  leaves  the  United 
States  without  a  peer  in  the  sugar-  and  candy-eat- 
ing role. 


•^  '"  -'S  -^-       A^'^i  iiiio. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
BY-PEODUCTS 

The  corresponding  by-products  from  the  vari- 
ous stages  in  the  production  of  sugar  from  sugar 
beets  and  sugar  cane  are  quite  similar  both  as  to 
character  and  uses.  The  important  by-products 
from  beets  are  tops,  crowns,  pulp,  molasses,  and 
press-cake;  and  from  cane,  tops,  bagasse,  molasses, 
and  press-cake. 

The  tops  and  crowns  average  four  tons  per  acre, 
and  have  been  utilized  onl}^  as  stock  food  and  fer- 
tilizer, the  average  value  for  the  former  purpose 
being  from  $1  to  $2  per  ton,  depending  upon  the 
localit3^  Since  the  mineral  constituents  contained, 
potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  chlorine,  sulphuric 
acid,  and  phosphoric  acid,  are  important  plant 
foods,  these  by-products  become  valuable  as  fer- 
tilizers when  applied  to  the  soil.  If  they  are 
plowed  under  the  fertilizer  property  is  increased 
by  the  addition  of  humus,  which  accrues  from 
the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter. 
14  193 


THE    STORY    OF   SUGAR 

The  pulp  from  the  beet  factory  is  the  residual 
part  of  the  spent  cossettes  after  the  sugar  content 
has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  continuous 
contact  of  warm  water.  These  contain,  however, 
from  0.25  to  0.50  per  cent  of  sugar,  1.5  to  3.5  per 
cent  cellulose,  90  per  cent  water,  and  a  small  per- 
centage of  mineral  matter.  This  by-product  from 
the  sugar-beet  factories  has  not  been  handled  in 
the  past  economicall}",  since  it  was  considered  by 
many  factory  owners  as  neither  worth  the  han- 
dling nor  preserving.  Much  progress  is  being 
made  at  this  time  in  turning  it  to  profit  as  a  stock 
food.  The  pulp  is  either  transferred  to  large 
silos  for  winter  feeding,  piled  green  in  bulk  in  the 
field,  or  more  or  less  dried  for  mixing  and  ship- 
ment. The  best  results  seem  to  have  been  obtained 
by  partially  drying  it  and  mixing  it  with  such 
feeds  as  molasses,  oil  cake,  ground  grain,  or 
chopped  hay.  In  Germany  more  than  one  half  of 
the  total  pulp  output  is  dried  for  use  in  the  manu- 
facture of  mixed  stock  feeds.  In  the  artificial  dry- 
ing the  amount  of  water  is  reduced  to  about  ten  or 
twelve  per  cent,  which  represents  the  average  con- 
tent of  water  or  moisture  in  hay.  The  product  at 
this  stage  resembles  closely  in  appearance  green 
tea.  The  drying  is  for  the  purpose  of  decreas- 
ing the  weight  and  bulk,  and  to  prevent  the 
deterioration   of   the   product   from   fermentation. 

194 


BY-PRODUCTS 

Feeds  in  which  the  dry  pulp  constitutes  a  basal 
part  are  highly  recommended  for  their  feeding 
value,  especially  for  dairy  cows  and  horses.  If  it 
is  balanced  with  either  molasses  or  ground  grain 
the  quality  of  milk  produced  by  it  is  superior  to 
that  which  results  from  a  mixed  grain  and  hay 
ration. 

In  factories  equipped  for  utilizing  the  pulp 
profitably  it  is  estimated  in  value  at  one-fifth  the 
original  cost  of  the  beets,  which  at  the  present 
price  would  make  it  $1  to  $1.25  per  ton. 

The  Germans  utilize  beet  pulp  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  a  syndicate 
has  been  organized  in  Colorado  for  beginning  the 
manufacture  in  this  country. 

The  tops  from  the  cane  are  even  more  valuable 
as  a  stock  food  than  the  tops  from  the  beet,  the 
average  estimated  value  being  $5  per  ton.  These 
have  been  utilized  in  the  Southern  States  economic- 
ally, as  there  is  always  a  scarcity  of  forage  crops 
suited  to  feeding  the  domestic  animals  required  on 
the  various  plantations. 

The  woody  pulp  left  after  the  extraction  of  the 
juice  from  the  cane  is  called  bagasse.  It  con- 
tains four  to  six  per  cent  of  sugar  when  the 
most  improved  methods  of  sugar  extraction  are 
utilized.  It  also  contains  certain  mineral  matters 
in  addition  to  the  organic  matter,  and  a  consider- 

195 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

able  quantity  of  water.  No  other  by-product  of 
the  sugar  factory  has  proven  so  intractible  to  utili- 
zation. Being  of  great  bulk,  it  becomes  a  difficult 
problem  to  transport  it  or  to  find  room  for  storage 
around  the  factory.  It  has  had  a  limited  use  as  a 
fertilizer  by  scattering  it  back  on  the  land,  but  the 
benefits  scarcely  balance  the  cost  of  handling.  It 
is  also  dangerous  to  leave  it  in  large  masses,  as 
the  fermentation  may  generate  sufficient  heat  to 
produce  a  conflagration.  It  has  been  used  to  a 
limited  extent  as  a  stock  food  by  mixing  with  mo- 
lasses, the  mixture  being  called  molascuit.  Al- 
though it  contains  elements  of  animal  nutrition, 
they  are  intermixed  with  indigestible  fiber  and 
mineral  matter  unassimilable,  making  the  profit  of 
this  utilization  questionable. 

The  use  of  bagasse  as  a  fuel  seems  to  represent 
the  most  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  no  furnace  has  yet  been 
invented  for  that  economic  consumption  which  is 
desired.  Fuel  is  very  expensive  in  most  of  the 
cane-growing  countries  of  the  world,  and  since  in 
a  furnace  adapted  to  drying  and  burning  the 
bagasse  it  will  supply  forty  per  cent  of  the  motive 
power  necessary  in  the  factory,  the  perfecting  of 
a  bagasse-burning  furnace  would  materially  lower 
the  cost  of  factory  production. 

Another  possibility  which  has  been  contemplated 

196 


BY-PRODUCTS 

with  hope  is  the  conversion  of  the  bagasse  into 
paper.  This,  however,  is  not  a  success  under  any 
method  which  has  been  recommended  or  tested, 
and  it  seems  doubtful  whether  science  will  be  able 
to  overcome  the  physical  and  chemical  handicaps 
in  the  way  of  separating  the  fiber  from  its  asso- 
ciated elements. 

MOLASSES 

Molasses  is  the  residual  product  from  sugar  man- 
ufacture after  separating  all  sugar  which  can  be 
economically  crystallized  by  evaporation.  It  con- 
tains fifty  to  sixty  per  cent  of  water,  thirteen  per 
cent  of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  and  a  varying 
small  percentage  of  mineral  matter.  The  molasses 
from  sugar  cane  contains  at  least  ten  per  cent 
more  sugar  than  that  from  beets.  The  impurities 
give  to  molasses  from  cane  and  beets  an  objection- 
able taste,  making  it  unpopular  as  a  table  food. 
So  limited  was  the  demand,  even  at  low  prices, 
that  millions  of  gallons  were  discarded  in  the  cane- 
growing  countries  before  profitable  uses  of  low-- 
grade molasses  were  discovered. 

The  manufacture  of  rum  was  one  of  the  first  ap- 
propriative  uses  of  cane  molasses.  Under  the  old 
*'  open-kettle  '*  method  of  reduction  about  six  per 
cent  of  the  cane  juice  was  contained  in  the  scums, 
and  lost  unless  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  rum. 

197 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  profit  from  rum  depended  largely  on  the  local- 
ity, as  some  soils  produced  an  article  of  great  su- 
periority over  that  from  other  cane-growing  re- 
gions. The  Jamaica  rum  has  long  been  noted  for 
its  fine  flavor,  and  has  not  been  successfully  dupli- 
cated in  any  other  country.  The  rum  production 
has  declined  in  the  United  States  in  favor  of 
cheaper  molasses-producing  countries  and  in  favor 
of  the  more  profitable  commodity,  alcohol.  In  1907, 
only  2,483,022  gallons  of  molasses  were  so  used. 
The  utilization  of  molasses  from  beet-sugar  fac- 
tories for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  is  increasing 
steadity.  More  than  20,000,000  gallons  of  molasses 
were  converted  into  10,000,000  gallons  of  alcohol  in 
1907.  While  it  takes  two  and  one  half  gallons  of 
molasses  from  beets  to  produce  one  gallon  of  nine- 
ty-five per  cent  alcohol,  only  two  gallons  of  cane 
molasses  are  required  because  of  the  higher  sugar 
content  of  the  latter.  Michigan  is  the  only  state 
wiiich  utilizes  the  w^iole  of  its  molasses  output  in 
the  manufacture  of  alcohol,  and  stands  first  in 
total  production,  with  New  York  second,  and  Lou- 
isiana third.  Practically  all  of  the  residuary  mo- 
lasses are  converted  into  alcohol  by  fermentation; 
the  chemical  salts  remain  as  a  residue,  and  are 
either  sold  to  the  fertilizer  manufacturers  or  re- 
fined for  the  separation  and  purification  of  the  pot- 
ash salts,  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  glass. 

198 


BY-PRODUCTS 

Molasses  has  been  extensively  used  in  Egypt  as 
a  fuel,  the  cost  of  which  is  so  high  in  that  country 
as  to  make  this  an  economic  utilization.  The  fur- 
nace must  be  of  a  special  type  for  molasses  con- 
sumption. First  it  is  reduced  to  a  charry  carbon 
form,  and  this  is  completely  consumed  in  combus- 
tion. As  a  fuel  molasses  is  an  efficient  generator 
of  steam  power,  but  the  rapidly  increasing  de- 
mand will  soon  command  for  it  a  value  prohibitive 
of  this  application. 

In  Java  molasses  is  applied  to  the  soil  as  a 
fertilizer,  thereby  returning  most  of  the  plant 
nutrition  taken  from  it.  AVe  naturally  think  of 
this  as  being  an  expensive  method  of  maintaining 
fertility,  but  in  that  country  the  by-product  sells 
as  low  as  three  cents  per  gallon,  which  is  about, 
one-fourth  cent  per  pound.  The  chemists  having 
the  experiments  in  charge  claim  that  the  most 
satisfactory  results  are  obtained  by  mixing  the 
molasses  with  furnace  ash,  filter-press  mud,  and 
dried  manure. 

Molasses  as  a  stock  food  has  grown  in  favor  since 
1885,  when  England  began  to  import  ''  black 
strap  "  for  this  purpose.  Very  little  was  fed  in 
the  United  States  until  fifteen  years  later,  but  now 
it  is  one  of  the  standard  mixed  stock  foods  on  the 
American  market.  In  the  cane-growing  states  of 
the   South,   it  is  both   fed   from   open  tanks   and 

199 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

mixed  with  other  feeds,  grain,  and  forage.  The 
mixed  feeds  are  prepared  in  general  in  four  ways : 
By  mixing  molasses  with  a  primary  product,  such 
as  grain  or  chopped  hay,  without  subjecting  any 
of  the  materials  to  heat;  by  mixing  hot  molasses 
with  cold  primary  products;  by  mixing  cold  mo- 
lasses with  kiln-dried  primary  products;  and  the 
mixing  of  hot  molasses  with  artificially  dried  prod- 
ucts. The  last  method  gives  the  most  satisfactory 
results  in  preventing  fermentation,  which  repre- 
sents the  most  serious  danger  and  handicap  in  the 
storage  and  feeding  of  molasses  in  mixed  feeds. 
The  most  common  products  for  the  preparation 
of  these  standard  feeds  are  cottonseed  meal,  dried 
brewers'  grain,  rice  bran,  rice  hulls,  corn,  ground 
cobs,  wheat  screenings,  oats,  dried  beet  pulp,  and 
ground  or  chopped  hay  and  straw.  The  molasses 
mixtures  are  in  greatest  demand  for  feeding  horses 
and  dairy  cows.  The  supply  is  inadequate  to  the 
demand  in  the  United  States,  as  a  result  of  which 
the  price  has  steadily  increased,  the  average  being 
$20  per  ton,  or  more  than  ten  cents  per  gallon. 
Since  molasses  contains  about  the  same  amount  of 
carbohydrates  as  corn,  it  is  cheaper  at  the  above 
high  price  than  corn  at  present  market  prices.  As 
a  food,  it  is  not  only  a  generator  of  heat,  but  a 
builder  of  muscular  tissue,  and  possesses  the  com- 
bined properties  of  stimulating  the  appetite,  in- 

200 


BY-PRODUCTS 

creasing    the    secretion    of    digestive    juices,    and 
increasing  the  saliva  supply. 

The  lime  cake  from  the  factory  filter  presses  is  a 
valuable  fertilizer,  since  it  contains  about  87  per 
cent  of  calcium  carbonate,  10  per  cent  organic 
matter,  1.5  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  small 
quantities  of  potash  and  nitrogen.  These  are  es- 
sential fertilizing  ingredients  for  all  crops.  The 
application  of  this  by-product  to  beet-growing 
soils  increases  the  tonnage  yield  and  the  sugar  con- 
tent, prevents  rapid  evaporation  of  the  soil  mois- 
ture, and  prevents  certain  diseases  which  are  fre- 
quently destructive. 


CHAPTER   XV 
FROM   REFIXER   TO    CONSUMER 

The  discussion  thus  far  has  dealt  primarily  with 
the  economic  side  of  production.  The  agencies  and 
channels  of  sugar  distribution  are  more  clearly  dif- 
ferentiated from  the  sources  of  supply  than  for  any 
other  commodity  Avhich  can  be  listed  as  a  staple 
food.  This  condition  has  for  centuries  charac- 
terized the  sugar  industry,  the  economic  explana- 
tion of  which  is  that  cane  sugar,  being  a  tropical 
product,  was  remote  from  the  regions  of  densest 
population  and  largest  market  centers.  The  cli- 
matic and  economic  conditions  of  these  tropical 
belts  made  entirely  impracticable  the  manufacture 
of  the  finished  product  in  the  cane-growing  regions. 

During  our  colonial  period  the  world's  sugar 
supply  was  controlled  by  the  stronger  commercial 
countries  of  Europe,  of  which  Great  Britain  was 
head.  The  supply,  therefore,  for  the  American 
colonies  came  largely  at  this  time  through  the  Lon- 
don brokers,  even  when  shipped  direct  from  the 

202 


FROM    REFINER    TO    CONSUMER 

West  Indies.  Granulated  sugar  was  then  more 
of  a  curiosity  than  daily  luxury,  and  the  domestic 
supply  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  soft  sugars, 
which  varied  in  color  from  dark  brown  to  a  light 
straw  yellow. 

The  first  sugar  refinery  in  the  United  States  of 
which  we  have  record  was  established  on  Liberty 
Street,  New  York,  in  1689.  This  was  of  small 
capacity  and  only  produced  soft  sugars.  The  re- 
fining industry  did  not  develop  to  the  extent  of  at- 
taining industrial  importance  until  the  middle  of 
the  succeeding  century,  at  which  time  small  refin- 
eries were  in  operation  in  New  York,  Boston,  and 
Philadelphia.  By  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury Philadelphia  had  become  the  largest  refining 
center  in  the  United  States,  while  Boston  was  de- 
veloping the  industry  with  greatest  rapidity,  hav- 
ing established  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century 
seven  new  refineries.  Even  at  this  time  less  than 
two  per  cent  of  the  total  sugar  consumed  in  the 
United  States  was  refined.  The  indications  are 
that  practically  all  of  the  refiners  realized  an  en- 
couraging profit  on  the  business,  and  the  compe- 
tition, instead  of  being  strong  between  the  inde- 
pendent refiners,  was  strong  between  the  London 
exporters  of  raw  sugar  and  the  American  refiners. 

The  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century  brought 
with   it  important  political  activities  in   Europe 

203 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

and  small  industrial  plants  in  America,  which  held 
within  them  the  potency  for  ultimately  revolution- 
izing the  sugar  industry.  The  French  Revolution 
paralyzed  the  European  sugar  trade,  as  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  it  commanded  a  price  of  one  to  two 
dollars  per  pound  in  1811,  following  the  blockade 
of  the  continental  ports  of  Europe.  Six  years 
previous  to  this  two  German  emigrants  by  the 
name  of  Frederick  and  William  Havemeyer  had 
started  a  small  sugar-refining  business  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Greenwich,  which  spot  has  long  been  a  part 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  They  came  to  the  United 
States  equipped  with  valuable  experience  in  the 
methods  of  sugar  refining  in  vogue  in  Germany, 
and  a  small  amount  of  money.  From  the  begin- 
ning they  were  aggressive  and  alert,  and  rapidly 
gained  influence  in  the  sugar  refining  business  of 
the  east.  The  refining  business  just  at  this  time 
was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. In  1812,  when  England's  sugar  interests 
were  suffering  severely  both  from  the  pressure  of 
the  Revolution  and  the  blocking  of  continental 
trade,  the  United  States  raised  the  duty  on  re- 
fined sugar  from  nine  cents  to  eighteen  cents  per 
pound,  the  duty  on  raw  sugar  being  only  three 
cents  per  pound.  This  tariff  was  prohibitory,  and 
gave  the  American  refiners  a  monopoly  on  refined 
sugar.     The  duty  was  not  placed  below  ten  cents 

204 


FROM    REFINER    TO    CONSUMER 

per  pound  until  1842,  nor  was  the  duty  on  raw 
sugar  raised  above  three  cents  per  pound.  The  re- 
finers had  the  additional  advantage  from  1816  to 
18-42  of  a  refundment  on  all  refined  sugar  ex- 
ported in  excess  of  the  duty  on  raw  sugar.  They, 
therefore,  had  the  power  of  not  only  fixing  the 
domestic  price,  but  of  reaping  large  profits  on  the 
export  trade  through  the  legislative  concessions. 
Naturally,  the  refiners  realized  such  large  profits 
that  the  domestic  competitive  conditions  became 
more  alluring  and  intense  each  year.  The  Have- 
meyers  had  already  become  the  strongest  individ- 
ual firm  in  the  competitive  field  and  were  trying 
out  on  a  relatively  small  scale  those  policies  and 
schemes  which  were  destined  to  be  launched  later 
on  a  gigantic  scale. 

From  1840  to  1860  the  sugar  industry  in 
Louisiana  prospered,  and  most  of  this  product 
was  sold  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley  in  an 
unrefined  condition.  Louisiana  sugar  thereby  be- 
came a  competitive  factor  and  had  an  appre- 
ciable influence  on  the  market.  The  Civil  "War, 
however,  not  only  depressed  the  Louisiana  sugar 
production,  but  almost  annihilated  it,  and  the  re- 
moval of  domestic  competition  gave  back  to  the 
refiners  almost  unlimited  price-fixing  power.  Fol- 
lowing the  war,  prices  on  all  food  commodities 
soared  high,  as  a  result  of  which  the  impoverished 

205 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

Southern  States  almost  ceased  to  purchase  refined 
sugar.  This  placed  the  refiner  at  the  necessity  of 
seeking  his  profits  from  exports. 

The  Pacific  Coast  was  still  a  frontier  country, 
but  thousands  were  being  added  to  the  population 
each  year.  Just  at  the  time  when  the  Gulf  Coast 
competition  was  being  eliminated  by  the  accident 
of  war,  Claus  Spreckels  began  refining  on  a  small 
scale  in  San  Francisco.  He  was  remote  from  the 
eastern  competition  and  could  obtain  his  raw  sugar 
from  Hawaii.  His  geographic  situation  enabled 
him  to  practically  supply  the  Pacific  Coast  at  his 
own  price,  which  is  equ'valent  to  saying  that  the 
Spreckels  business  prospered.  The  heydey  of  the 
Spreckels  prosperity  did  not  appear  until  1875, 
when  the  United  States  established  reciprocity  re- 
lations with  Hawaii,  admitting  sugar  free.  Eco- 
nomically, this  meant  the  lowering  of  the  cost  of 
sugar  to  the  consumer,  but  the  facts  are  that  the 
Spreckels  refineries  used  their  enlarged  power  in 
raising  the  price  of  the  commodity.  How  com- 
pletely this  power  was  exercised  is  attested  by  the 
price  of  Spreckels 's  sugar  in  San  Francisco  being 
higher  than  the  price  of  Spreckels 's  sugar  in  Kan- 
sas City.  No  flight  of  the  imagination  is  necessary 
for  believing  that  this  daring  western  German  was 
having  focused  on  him  across  the  Rocky  Mountains 
several  pairs  of  cold,  undaunted  German  eyes  from 

206 


FROM  REFINER  TO  CONSUMER 

the  Great  Metropolis.  By  1880  the  competition 
assumed  a  triangular  defensive  between  the  east- 
ern refiners,  the  Pacific  Coast  refiners,  and  the 
Gulf  Coast  brown-sugar  makers.  This  competition 
naturally  brought  about  rate  wars,  which  imme- 
diately opened  the  firing  line  within  the  ranks  of 
the  eastern  refiners,  the  more  important  of  whom 
were  operating  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Bos- 
ton, and  Baltimore.  The  ferocity  of  the  combat 
may  be  inferred  from  the  failure  of  more  than  one 
third  of  the  refiners  of  these  cities  in  less  than 
one  decade.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  com- 
petitive conditions  waged  most  vigorously  were 
initiated,  followed  up,  and  consummated  by  the 
strongest  of  those  who  survived.  The  Havemeyer 
firm  was  recognized  now  as  the  most  daring  and 
the  ,most  dictatorial.  That  their  methods  were  at 
least  of  a  questionable  character  is  amply  signal- 
ized by  the  different  governmental  investigations 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States  and  the  discrim- 
inated independents. 

The  financial  storm  in  the  circle  of  sugar  refin- 
ers was  followed  by  the  pooling  agreement  of  1887, 
which,  in  its  origin,  organization,  and  character, 
represented  the  birth  of  the  Sugar  Trust.  The 
lines  of  control  tightened  with  magic  swiftness. 
The  personnel  of  the  small  absorbed  independents 
was  lost  in  the  undercurrent  of  reorganization,  and 

207 


THE   STORY    OF    SUGAR 

the  capitalization  increased  from  seven  million  to 
fifty  million  dollars  through  the  simple  process  of 
stock  watering.  The  price  of  sugar  rose  immedi- 
ately twenty  per  cent  and  continued  to  rise  during 
two  years.  The  refiners'  differential  was  increased 
from  three-fourths  cents  per  pound  to  one  and  one- 
fourth  cents  per  pound.  So  enormous  were  the 
profits  that  ten  per  cent  dividends  were  regularly 
declared  on  the  new  capitalization. 

In  1889  the  wholesale  grocers  of  the  United 
States  became  a  party  to  the  Trust  manipulations 
by  forming  a  national  organization  and  agreeing 
to  sell  sugar  on  a  fixed  margin  of  one-fourth  cent 
per  pound.  This  organization,  known  as  the 
Wholesale  Grocers,  entered  into  a  definite  agree- 
ment with  the  Sugar  Trust  in  1891,  by  which 
the  latter  was  given  the  power  to  fix  the  price 
in  the  different  zones  named.  To  make  the  con- 
trol absoluti^  the  Trust  granted  a  rebate  of  one- 
eighth  cent  per  pound  to  the  wholesaler  at  the 
end  of  each  quarter,  provided  he  had  not  been  an 
offender. 

The  financial  depression,  which  began  in  1890 
and  reached  its  zenith  in  1893,  and  the  aggressive 
competition  of  the  independents  steadily  forced 
the  price  of  sugar  down  until  it  reached  the  low 
retail  water-mark  of  4.12  cents  per  pound  in  1894. 
Claus  Spreckels,  Sr.,  kept  up  his  heroic  fight  in  the 

208 


FROM    REFINER    TO    CONSUMER 

east  until  1892,  at  which  time  he  yielded  to  the 
pressure  and  overtures  of  the  Trust.  Be  it  said 
to  the  honor  of  his  son,  Claus  A.  Spreckels,  man- 
ager of  the  Spreckels'  refinery  in  Philadelphia, 
that  he  refused  to  sell  or  to  consolidate,  which  not 
only  placed  him  on  the  firing  line  against  the 
Trust,  but  caused  a  rupture  in  the  Spreckels  fam- 
ily which  has  not  been  healed. 

From  1894  to  1899  numerous  independents 
sprang  up,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Trust 
controlled  more  than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  total 
output.  These  were  sufficiently  strong  to  cut  down 
the  refiners'  difi:'erential,  and  to  wage  a  competitive 
warfare  which  was  at  least  uncomfortable  to  the 
more  powerful  opponents.  The  strongest  of  the 
independents  of  this  period  were  Mollenhauer,  of 
Brooklyn ;  Howells,  of  Yonkers ;  McCahan,  of 
Philadelphia ;  Arbuckle  Brothers,  of  New  York ; 
and  Claus  Doscher,  of  New  York.  In  1900,  Mollen- 
hauer,  Howells,  and  Doscher  interests  consolidated 
into  the  National  Refining  Company  of  New  Jer- 
sey, which  immediately  was  brought  into  harmony 
with  the  Trust.  This  left  the  Arbuckle  Brothers, 
McCahan  Sugar  Refining  Company,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania Sugar  Refining  Company  the  only  large 
independents,  with  a  capacity  of  10,500  barrels 
per  day. 

Prior  to  1900  the  Sugar  Trust  gave  little  atten- 
15  209 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

tion  to  the  beet-sugar  industry  in  the  west.  In 
this  year,  however,  a  rate  war  was  begun  by  the 
Trust  (American  Refining  Company)  by  quoting 
sugar  at  three  and  one-half  cents  per  pound  at 
points  along  the  Missouri  River,  this  being  below 
the  market  price  of  raw  sugar  at  that  time.  Sub- 
sequently the  Trust  has  steadily  increased  its  ac- 
tivities in  the  acquirement  of  beet-sugar  properties 
both  by  purchase  and  by  the  development  of  com- 
munity interests,  until  now  it  controls  probably 
more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  total  beet-sugar 
production. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  elaborate  on  the  merits 
or  demerits  of  Trust  control,  nor  to  argue  the 
question  whether  the  Sugar  Trust,  under  the  cor- 
porate name  of  the  American  Refining  Company, 
is  supplying  sugar  at  a  less  cost  to  the  consumer 
than  would  have  been  possible  without  its  organi- 
zation, but  it  must  be  admitted  in  just  recognition 
of  the  facts  that  the  methods  resorted  to  in  its 
organization,  importation  of  raw  product,  and  dis- 
tribution of  refined  product  constitute  a  dark  and 
disreputable  page  in  the  history  of  American  in- 
dustrialism. Its  sins  were  suxficiently  contempti- 
ble to  inspire  an  adverse  public  opinion,  to  com- 
mand a  series  of  investigations  by  the  United 
States  Government,  and  to  set  family  against  fam- 
ily even  within  the  corporate  house. 

210 


FROM  REFINER  TO  CONSUMER 

CONTROL  OF  SUPPLY 

The  refiners  can  only  partially  control  the  total 
production  of  raw  sugar  in  any  country  which 
must  import  the  bulk  of  the  sugar  consumed,  but 
they  almost  absolutely  control  the  supply  to 
the  consumer.  The  United  States  is  obviously  in 
this  class,  since  four-fifths  of  the  sugar  consumed 
is  imported  from  outlying  territory  and  foreign 
countries. 

The  supply  of  sugar  which  is  accessible  to  the 
refiners  of  the  United  States  fluctuates  with  the 
production  of  the  cane-growing  countries  nearest 
to  us,  and  with  the  strength  of  the  demand  in  more 
remote  sugar-importing  countries.  Almost  one- 
half  of  the  total  sugar  imported  by  the  United 
States  at  this  time  comes  from  Cuba,  and  the 
United  States  refiner  holds  the  power  of  practi- 
cally controlling  the  Cuban  output  by  reason  of 
the  preferential  tariff  and  the  smaller  transporta- 
tion cost.  Should  the  demand  in  London  be  such 
that  the  London  broker  could  afford  to  pay  the 
Cuban  producer  more  than  the  price  offered  by 
the  refiners  of  the  United  States,  the  Cuban  supply 
would  either  go  to  London  or  the  Cuban  producer 
would  receive  a  higher  price  for  his  sugar  from  the 
refiners  of  the  United  States. 

The  beet-growing  countries  of  Europe  had  an 

211 


THE   STORY    OF    SUGAR 

important  influence  on  the  American  supply  of 
sugar  prior  to  tlie  Brussells'  Convention  of  1902, 
which  effected  a  readjustment  of  the  domestic  tax 
and  the  export  drawback  in  the  European  coun- 
tries. The  agreement  of  this  Convention  also  had 
the  effect  of  terminating  the  combination  agree- 
ment which  had  long  existed  between  the  producers 
of  raw  beet  sugar  and  the  refiners.  As  a  result, 
the  price  of  raw  beet  sugar  rose  to  a  standard 
which  was  practically  prohibitory  to  competition 
with  the  cane-producing  countries.  The  effect  was 
marked  on  the  sugar  supply  and  the  sugar  trade  of 
the  United  States.  From  1896  to  1902  the  impor- 
tation of  beet  sugar  from  Europe  averaged  371,- 
318  tons,  while  in  1908  it  w^as  less  than  2,000  tons. 

CONTROL  OF  PRICE 

Of  the  multitude  of  elements  which  directly  or 
indirectly  are  influential  in  the  control  of  prices, 
we  shall  only  enumerate  the  more  significant.  It 
is  usually  granted  that  when  a'  distributing  agent 
can  control  the  output  it  will  be  able  to  fix  the 
price,  and  this  has  been  one  of  the  impelling  meth- 
ods used  by  the  sugar  refiners  of  the  United  States 
since  the  beginning  of  corporation  control.  If  we 
consider  the  world's  sugar  supply  with  reference 
to  a  world  market,  then  it  must  be  granted  that 

212 


FROM    REFINER    TO    CONSUMER 

Germany  is  the  most  influential  factor  in  fixing  a 
world  price.  There  are  many  conditions,  however, 
which  prevent  the  economic  conditions  in  vogue 
in  Germany  from  fixing  the  price  of  sugar  in 
America,  excepting  within  very  large  limits.  The 
reader  has  already  suggested  to  himself  the  tariff 
protection  as  being  the  most  effectual  barrier  in 
safeguarding  the  domestic  price. 

Probably  the  next  most  important  element  in  the 
control  of  the  price  on  raw  sugars  is  the  trans- 
portation cost  from  the  various  countries  which 
produce  a  surplus.  The  refiners  use  this  margin 
to  the  limit  in  purchasing  the  product  at  an  ad- 
vantageous rate.  It  is  also  used  as  an  argumenta- 
tive pressure  in  many  cases;  to  illustrate,  the 
eastern  refiner  purchases  raw  sugar  in  Louisiana 
at  the  New  York  market  price  less  the  transporta- 
tion charge  from  Louisiana  to  New  York,  and  after 
obtaining  this  concession  refines  most  of  the  prod- 
uct in  New  Orleans. 

Naturally  the  volume  of  the  purchase  has  much 
to  do  with  the  fixing  of  the  price.  A  large  pur- 
chaser can  always  obtain  his  goods  at  a  lower  price, 
and  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  storing  raw 
sugar  without  deterioration,  it  is  emphatically  true 
of  this  commodity.  This,  therefore,  represents  one 
of  the  economies  which  has  been  accentuated  by 
the  consolidation  of  the  refiners. 

213 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

The  time  at  which  the  purchase  is  made  is  prob- 
ably more  influential  in  controlling  the  price  than 
the  volume  of  the  purchase.  The  Louisiana  sugars 
go  on  the  market  from  December  to  IMay,  and 
toward  the  latter  part  of  this  period  the  Cuban 
sugars  are  also  seeking  purchasers.  Both  produc- 
ers are  dependent  largely  on  the  eastern  refiners 
for  the  purchase  of  the  product,  and  these  in  turn 
manipulate  the  market,  playing  both  ends  against 
the  center  for  the  lowering  of  the  price.  This  also 
happens  to  be  the  season  when  the  rate  of  con- 
sumption in  the  United  States  is  least,  and  as  a 
business  proposition  the  refiners  lower  the  price 
on  the  refined  product  to  increase  the  sales.  This 
arbitrary  lowering  of  the  price  on  the  refined 
product  is  then  used  with  powerful  pressure  to 
lower  the  price  on  the  purchases  of  raw  sugar. 

The  price  of  sugar  under  Trust  control  has 
fluctuated,  but  the  average  price  has  been  lower 
than  previous  to  1890,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  average  difi'erential  to  the  refiner  has  been 
considerably  higher.  It  is  also  true  that  the  retail 
price  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  is  lower  than  in 
any  other  large  sugar-consuming  country  except 
Great  Britain.  The  price  is  steadily  maintained 
with  reference  to  the  largest  perpetual  profit.  The 
introduction  of  large  scale  production  gave  in- 
creasing returns  of  profit  through  economies  of 

214 


FROM    REFINER    TO    CONSUMER 

operation,  labor-saving  inventions,  improved  meth- 
ods of  transportation  and  distribution,  all  of  which 
may  be  classed  as  legitimate  economies  and  im- 
provements. That  there  were  also  questionable 
policies  practiced,  we  have  already  hinted  at,  and 
for  further  evidence  the  public  must  await  further 
investigations. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
OUR   FUTURE   SUGAR   SUPPLY 

It  is  safe  to  predict  that  the  people  of  the  United 
States  will  become  heavier  consumers  of  sugar  un- 
less the  price  of  sugar  should  increase  dispropor- 
tionately to  other  foods;  and  in  any  event  the  fu- 
ture supply  must  be  much  larger  than  the  present 
consumption.  Whether  the  development  of  the 
sugar  industry  of  the  world  can  keep  economic  pace 
with  the  increase  in  population  is  an  interesting  and 
important  problem ;  but  w^hether  the  United  States 
can  meet  her  demand,  and  how,  is  a  question  of 
more  immediate  and  vital  importance  to  the  cur- 
rent discussion. 

We  believe  that  the  signs  of  the  times  point  to 
the  sugar  industry  becoming  more  and  more  of  a 
world  industry  with  reference  to  production,  and 
that  at  the  same  time  it  will  become  more  concen- 
;  trated  in  certain  regions  whose  natural  adaptation 
gives  sugar-producing  plants  the  vantage  over 
other  merchantable   crops.     The  rivalry  between 

216 


OUR  FUTURE  SUGAR  SUPPLY 

sugar  cane,  and  tobacco,  rice,  cotton,  coffee,  vege- 
tables, and  fruits  must  become  keener,  and  as  a  re- 
sult inore  economically  differentiated.  The  regions 
adapted  to  the  sugar  beet  are  situated  in  the  zone 
which  must  continue  to  supply  the  world  with  most 
of  the  breadstuffs,  meats,  and  meat  products.  The 
demand  for  these  will  increase  commensurate  with 
the  population  increase,  making  it  necessary  for 
the  beet  acreage  to  hold  its  place  against  rivals  of 
increasing  strength.  In  the  last  analysis  the  grain 
crops  will  continue  to  stand  firm  against  all  rivals 
up  to  the  point  of  supplying  the  peoples  of  the 
temperate  zone  with  an  adequate  bread  supply, 
and  the  indications  are  convincing  that  the  de- 
mand of  the  tropics  for  temperate-zone  grains  will 
also  increase  persistently.  Under  the  present  sys- 
tem of  production  the  world's  meat,  butter,  and 
milk  supply  is  largely  dependent  on  the  grain  pro- 
duction, and  under  normal-price  conditions  these 
stand  next  to  breadstuff's  on  the  diet  scale  in  ur- 
gency of  demand  and  desire,  and  so  will  become 
more  formidable  rivals  as  the  population  of  the 
great  grain-producing  countries  increases. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  sugar-beet  and 
sugar-cane  zones  will  be  squeezed  from  without 
and  within  with  a  pressure  which  will  result  in 
concentration  in  parts  of  the  zone  and  decentral- 
ization in  others.    Differentiation  of  this  character 

217 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

is  apparent  in  the  United  States  at  this  time. 
Some  land  in  the  Mississippi  delta  is  so  profitably 
adapted  to  cane  that  it  commands  a  market  price 
of  $200  to  $300  per  acre,  and  is  being  used  more 
intensively  each  year.  In  the  more  inland  part 
of  the  coastal  plain  the  cane  acreage  is  being 
slowly  extended;  slowly,  because  experimentally. 
Just  at  the  time  when  the  promoters  of  the  sugar- 
beet  industry  felt  that  its  security  as  the  chief 
money  crop  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  west 
was  fixed,  luring  reports  became  rife  as  to  real- 
ized profits  on  apples,  peaches,  and  small  fruits  in 
Colorado,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  New  Mexico.  About 
the  same  time  the  small  farmers  and  gardeners 
showed  an  equally  attractive  report  of  the  net  an- 
nual acreage  income  from  potatoes,  onions,  and 
cantaloupes.  A  new  adjustment  had  to  be  estab- 
lished. Not  that  the  beet-sugar  factories  of  Idaho, 
in  which  the  shuffle  is  most  vigorous,  were  unprof- 
itable, but  that  an  income  of  $40  to  $60  per 
acre  became  unsatisfactory  under  a  favorable  pros- 
pect of  receiving  an  annual  income  of  $200  to 
$500  per  acre  by  waiting  six  or  eight  years  for 
the  working  capital  to  make  its  start.  The  plant- 
ing of  old  beet  fields  in  apple  trees  and  straw- 
berries is  but  the  outward  sign  of  the  revolu- 
tion and  evolution  in  progress.  Other  states,  like 
Michigan,    Nebraska,     and    Kansas,    which    had 

218 


OUR  FUTURE  SUGAR  SUPPLY 

grown  beets  and  manufactured  them  on  a  small 
scale,  but  somewhat  half-heartedly,  took  heart  and 
began  to  strike  the  anvil  of  their  opportunity  with 
vigor  and  purpose.  The  general  result  is  that  the 
total  acreage  has  been  rapidly  extended  and  fac- 
tory construction  and  operation  placed  on  a  more 
permanent  and  economic  basis. 

The  beet  zone  of  the  United  States  is  not  so  cir- 
cumscribed by  geographic  limitations  as  the  sugar- 
cane zone,  and  is  more  centrally  located  with  refer- 
ence to  the  largest  number  of  consumers.  The 
beet-sugar  industry  is  also  developing  along  more 
independent  lines,  in  that  the  manufacturing  proc- 
ess is  complete  from  the  beet  to  refined  sugar  ready 
for  distribution.  Weighing  all  of  the  evidence 
the  sugar-beet  industry  gives  prospect  of  devel- 
oping more  rapidly  and  to  a  much  larger  maxi- 
mum production  than  the  domestic  cane  industry. 
The  expansion  limit  for  economic  development 
w^ll  be  fixed  by  so  many  factors  that  the  future 
growth  of  either  branch  of  the  industry  is  prob- 
lematical, so  that  the  most  responsible  conclusions 
which  can  be  reached  are  deducible  from  a  series 
of  economic  and  commercial  possibilities. 

"We  have  already  seen  that  the  cane  zone  could 
be  extended  about  ten-fold,  and  that  the  beet  zone 
is  capable  of  even  larger  extension. 

Under  present  conditions  of  production  it  is  dif- 

219 


THE    STORY    OF    SUGAR 

ficult  to  see  how  the  sugar  industry  of  this  country 
could  meet  the  competitive  conditions  of  a  removal 
or  a  marked  reduction  of  the  tariff  on  sugar,  un- 
less that  would  bring  with  it  an  increase  in  the 
price  of  raw  and  refined  sugar  in  the  price-fixing 
markets  of  the  world.  Cuba  is  admittedly  our 
most  dangerous  competitor  now  in  reducing  the 
price  of  raw  sugar  to  a  close  margin  of  profit  for 
the  cane  grower,  but  the  handicaps  of  inefficient 
and  inadequate  labor  hang  even  more  ominously 
over  Cuba  than  the  United  States.  The  United 
States  receives  now  under  the  preferential  tariff 
about  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  total  crop,  which 
is  more  than  three  times  the  amount  received  from 
the  island  in  1901.  This  shows  the  urgency  of  our 
increasing  demand.  The  Cuban  planters  report 
that  they  are  maintaining  the  present  large  pro- 
duction under  the  most  serious  difficulties ;  so,  is  it 
not  as  probable  that  even  a  reduction  or  removal 
of  the  tariff  on  Cuban  sugar  would  be  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  Cuban  growers  and  manufacturers 
to  raise  the  price  on  raw  sugar?  Our  opinion  is 
that  a  tariff  reduction  on  raw  sugar  would  slightly 
lower  the  price  of  raw  si.gar,  increase  the  refiners' 
differential,  and  increase  the  price  of  raw  sugar  in 
the  tropical  exporting  countries. 

The  field  cost  of  producing  both  beets  and  cane 
seems  to  be  increasing  throughout  the  sugar-pro- 

220 


OUR  FUTURE  SUGAR  SUPPLY 

diTcing  regions,  but  the  economies  in  methods  of 
manufacture  Avhich  liave  been  invented  and  intro- 
duced have  thus  far  more  than  counterbalanced  the 
increased  cost  of  fiekl  production.  We  cannot 
foretell  the  readjustments  of  the  future  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries  concerned  as  to  cost  of  labor,  cost 
of  machinery,  and  aggregate  cost  of  manufacture. 
The  economic  conditions,  however,  point  to  a  con- 
tinued increase  of  producing  costs  in  the  tropical 
regions  for  some  time  to  come.  It  is  also  true  that 
there  are  various  elements  operating  throughout 
the  industrial  countries  of  the  temperate  zone, 
which  are  likely  to  place  a  limit  on  further  econo- 
mies in  factory  equipment ;  chiefly  because  the  cost 
of  iron,  steel,  and  lumber  products  is  increasing 
throughout  the  world  with  the  increased  consump- 
tion and  the  proportionate  exhaustion  of  the  raw 
supplies  out  of  wliicli  these  products  are  manu- 
factured. 

In  considering  the  future  production  and  con- 
sumption of  sugar  we  should  take  into  account 
the  probable  exploitation  of  the  sugar-cane  in- 
dustry in  South  America,  tropical  Africa,  and 
southern  Asia,  and  the  beet-su^ar  industry  in 
northern  Asia.  Unless  there  is  a  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  domestic  sugar  industry  in  South 
American  countries,  the  countries  of  this  continent 
must  become  heavy  importers.     Since  the  industry 

221 


THE   STORY    OF    SUGAR 

is  growing  at  this  time  proportionate  to  the  in- 
creased demand  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  the  South  American  continent  will  at  least 
continue  to  supply  the  domestic  demand.  Should 
the  world  price  of  sugar  increase  and  the  tariff  con- 
ditions be  made  favorable  it  is  not  at  all  impossible 
that  a  part  of  the  United  States'  future  sugar  de- 
mand may  be  supplied  by  our  South  American 
neighbors. 

The  general  industrial  exploitation  which  is  cer- 
tain to  take  place  in  Africa  will  create  a  continu- 
ous and  growing  demand  for  sugar  in  that  conti- 
nent. It  is  significant  to  note  that  the  production 
at  this  time  is  not  increasing  proportionate  to  the 
consumption,  and  a  general  survey  of  the  geo- 
graphic conditions  of  that  continent  would  indi- 
cate that  Africa  is  more  likely  to  be  an  importer 
of  sugar  than  an  exporter.  The  densely  populated 
countries  of  the  southern  half  of  Asia  are  increas- 
ing their  production  annually,  but  here  the  rate  of 
production  increase  is  not  keeping  pace  with  the 
increase  in  consumption.  Even  China  is  purchas- 
ing more  sugar  than  at  any  time  in  the  past. 

It  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  the  beet-sugar 
industry  will  be  successfully  exploited  in  parts  of 
Siberia,  and  in  certain  regions  of  western  Asia 
which  are  susceptible  to  irrigation.  In  any  survey 
of  the  present  and  future  beet-growing  countries 

222 


OUR  FUTURE  SUGAR  SUPPLY 

both  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  must  be  counted 
as  regions  whicli  in  geographic  and  soil  environ- 
ment hold  out  the  most  favorable  prospect  for  de- 
velopment on  a  large  scale.  The  industry  is  recog- 
nized now  by  the  Russian  Government  as  one  of 
her  substantial  agricultural  resources,  and  with 
the  extension  of  the  industry  in  area  has  come  an 
improvement  in  method  of  cultivation  and  manu- 
facture which  is  encouraging  to  the  sugar  pur- 
chasers of  Europe,  and  alarming  to  the  beet-grow- 
ing countries.  It  is  indeed  fortunate  for  the  world 
industry  that  this  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
has  so  large  a  zone  economically  adapted  to  the 
profitable  cultivation  of  beets.  The  older  beet- 
producing  countries  of  Europe,  of  which  Germany 
has  been  most  conspicuous,  are  regions  of  dense 
population,  which  makes  the  competitive  struggle 
more  severe,  and  of  necessity  places  any  one  in- 
dustry under  restrictions  as  to  its  extension. 

When  we  compare  the  present  status  of  the  pro- 
ducing and  consuming  countries  with  the  most 
natural  economic  development  of  the  future  we 
are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  United  States 
will  have  to  depend  largely  on  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  for  our  imported  sugar 
supply.  Of  all  of  these,  the  Philippines  probably 
offer  the  opportunity  for  the  most  favorable  and 
rapid  increase  in  total  production.     A  correlated 

223 


THE   STORY    OF    SUGAR 

consideration  of  these  more  or  less  speculative 
arguments  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  future  de- 
mand for  sugar  will  increase  disproportionate  to 
the  profitable  exploitation  of  the  industry  on  the 
basis  of  present  price,  which  would  lead  to  a  rise 
rather  than  a  decline  in  the  price  of  sugar;  and 
furthermore,  that  the  conditions  and  character  of 
the  imported  supply  will  continue  to  be  favorable 
to  the  domestic  development  of  both  our  cane  and 
beet-sugar  industries. 

We  have,  thus  far,  taken  no  account  of  the  pos- 
sible or  probable  changes  in  the  demand  for  cane 
and  beet  sugar  through  the  utilization  of  other 
sugar-producing  plants.  The  results  of  experi- 
ments thus  far  perfected  do  not  indicate  that  any 
great  evolution  in  the  world's  industry  is  likely  to 
take  place  through  the  development  of  more  eco- 
nomic sugar-producing  plants.  The  scientists  and 
inventors  have  long  hoped  to  discover  or  develop  a 
successful  method  for  the  reduction  and  crystal- 
lization of  sugar  from  "^he  juice  of  sorghum.  Even 
if  this  should  be  accomplished  it  would  only  have 
the  result  of  extending  the  cane  zone  into  the  tem- 
perate region,  in  most  of  which  the  profits  on  sugar 
from  sorghum  would  probably  not  be  more  than 
could  be  realized  from  the  cultivation  of  sugar 
beets  in  the  same  region.  We  have  previously  men- 
tioned the  results  of  experiments  in  the  separation 

224 


OUR  FUTURE  SUGAR  SUPPLY 

of  sugar  from  Indian  corn  at  certain  stages  of  its 
growth.  The  increasing  demand  for  all  the  fruits 
indigenous  to  the  tropical  and  the  temperate  zones 
would  suggest  the  improbability  of  fruits  being- 
used  more  in  the  future  as  a  source  of  sugar  than 
they  have  been  in  the  past. 

We  are  scarcely  justified  in  making  a  surmise  as 
to  what  the  future  holds  in  store  in  the  way  of 
sugar  substitutes.  No  successful  substitute  for 
crystallized  sugar  has  as  yet  been  placed  on  the 
market,  but  the  success  of  sirup  manufacture  from 
glucose  has  been  so  significant  as  to  make  us  won- 
der what  cheap,  stable,  and  convenient  substitutes 
for  sugar  may  be  awaiting  the  hand  that  can  set 
them  free. 


16 


INDEX 


Achard,    10. 
Africa,  96,  222. 
Alvarado,  CaL,  116. 
Antwerp,  Belgium,  147. 

capture  of,  24. 

sugar  center  in  sixteenth 
century,  23. 
Aphids,  secretion  of,  8. 
Apple,  7. 

sugar  content  of,  10. 
Arabia,  8. 

sugar  cane  in,  16. 
Argentina,    producing   prov- 
inces of,  87. 

rank  of,  in  sugar  produc- 
tion, 86. 
Assumption  Parish,  63. 
Australia,  95. 
Austria,  114. 
Austria-Hungary,  143. 

cost  of  production  in,  144. 

price    of    sugar    and    con- 
sumption in,  144. 

production  and  export  in, 
143. 


Bagasse,   195. 

Bamboo,  ancient  use  of,  6. 


Barbado    Islands,    introduc- 
tion of  sugar  cane  in, 
26. 
Barbadoes,    sugar    cane    in, 

90. 
Beets,  factory  price  of,  52. 
first  cost  of  production  of, 

52. 
manufacture  of  sugar  in, 

10. 
minerals  contained  in,  12. 
production    of,    per    acre, 

52. 
profitable     sugar     content 

of,  11. 
zone   of,    12. 
Belgium,   133,   147. 

consumption   tax   and   re- 
tail price  on  sugar  in, 
147. 
production   and   consump- 
tion in,  147. 
refining  center,  147. 
Bengal,  early  cultivation  of 

sugar  cane  in,  15. 
Blood,    use   of,    in    refining, 

162. 
Blow-up  room,   165. 


227 


INDEX 


Bohemia,  110,  144. 
Bone   ash    and   charcoal   fil- 
ters, 166. 
Brazil,     competitive     indus- 
tries in,  86. 
conquest  of,  by  Dutch,  25. 
introduction  of  sugar  cane 

in,  17. 
sugar  cane  zone  in,  86. 
British    Guiana's    sugar    in- 

'       dustry,  87,  88. 
British     India,     palm     cane 
production  in,  92. 
per     capita     consumption 

in,  92. 
sugar  cane  acreage  in,  91. 
sugar  cane  production  in, 

92. 
sugar  imports  in,  92. 
British  West  Indies,  89. 
Brussell's  convention,  212. 
effect   of,   on    sugar   mar- 
ket, 147. 

California,  132. 

Camel's  Thorn,  7. 

Canada,    the    sugar    import 

in,  153. 
Canary  Islands,  introduction 

of  cane  in,  17. 
Candy,  188. 

consumption  of,   190. 
in  New  York  City,  191. 
Cane  sugar,  antiseptic  prop- 
erty of,   10. 
chemical  formula  for,  29. 


Cane   sugar,   first   American 

manufacture  of,  18. 
Central  America,  adaptation 
of,  to  cane,  82. 
cost   of    sugar   production 

in,  83. 
exports  from,  82. 
total  production  in,  83. 
Centrifugal     machine,     167, 

178. 
Cherry,  7. 
China,  190,  222. 

early   cultivation   of   cane 

in,  15. 
sugar  imports  in,  93. 
sugar  production  in,  93. 
varieties  of  cane  in,  93. 
Civil  War,  sugar  industry  in 

Louisiana  and,  61. 
Coffee,  influence  of,  on  sugar 
consumption,  25. 
introduction  of,  into  Eng- 
land, 25. 
Porto  Rican  export  of,  78. 
Coiron,  John,  18. 
Colombia  crops,  88. 
Colonial  period,   sugar   con- 
trol in,  202. 
Colorado,  124. 

phenomenal  growth  of  the 
sugar      industry      in, 
118. 
Competition,  rival  crops  in, 

55. 
Consumption    tax    in    coun- 
tries of  Europe,  108. 


228 


INDEX 


Cossette,  173. 
Cotton,  a  rival  crop,  60. 
Cotton  gin,  invention  of,  60. 
Crusades,  effect  of,  on  sugar 

trade,  20. 
Cuba,  conquest  of,  24. 
development     of     slavery 

and  sugar  industry  in, 

75. 
factory  ownership  in,  75. 
first  sugar  mill  in,  24. 
important  cane   provinces 

of,  76. 
introduction    of    cane    in, 

74. 
preferential  tariff  rate  in, 

75. 
price  of  sugar  in,  in  1876, 

76. 
production  in,  in  1909,  75. 
sugar     export     from,     to 

United   States,    76. 
Cultivation,  cultivators  used 

in,  46. 
need    of    diversified    crops 

for,  in  cane  belt,  55. 
need    of    improvement    in, 

132. 
requirement  in  cane,  44. 
result  of  one  crop  system 

of,   43. 

Denmark's  sugar  beet  indus- 
try, 150. 
Diffusion,  158,  174,  176. 
Dingley  Act,  1897,  117. 


Disaccharid,  29. 
Dombasle,  173. 
Drainage,      importance      of, 
64. 
necessity  of,  43. 
"Drv  rot,"  45. 
Dutch  East  Indies,  83. 

Ecuador,  89. 
Egypt,  sugar  cane  in,  16. 
Eucalyptus,  7. 
Euphrates  valley,  15. 
Europe,    1908    beet    produc- 
tion in,  140. 
Evaporators,  177. 

Factory      concentration      in 

cane  belt,  53. 
Fermentation,  causes  of,  49. 
Fertilizer,  lime  cake,  200. 
molasses,  199. 
potash  salts,  198. 
Filter  press,  177. 
Florida,    acquisition    of,    by 
United  States,  60. 
decline  of  cane  production 

in,  66. 
leading  merchantable  crops 
in,  67. 
Foods,   composition  of,   34. 
prices  of,   and  sugar  con- 
sumption, 36. 
France,  110,  133,  146. 

alcohol   from   sugar   beets 

in,  146. 
consumption  in,  146. 


229 


INDEX 


France,     early     exploitation 
of     sugar     beets     in, 
111. 
progress  of  sugar  beet  in- 
dustry   in,    111,    112, 
113. 
retail   price   of   sugar   in, 

146. 
sugar    beet    industry    in, 
146. 
Freezing,     protecting     cane 

against,  45. 
French        Revolution        and 

sugar  trade,  204. 
French  West  Indies,  91. 
Fruit   sugar,  characteristics 
of,  9. 

Genoa,  sugar  trade  in,  19. 
Germany,   129,  133. 

growth  of  sugar  industry 

in,  141. 
wages  in,  52. 
Granulation,  161,  180. 
Grape    sugar,    chemical   for- 
mula for,  29. 
commercial  preparation  of, 

9. 
occurrence  of,  9. 
uses  of,  9. 
Grasses,  sugar  producing,  2. 
Great     Britain,     emigration 
from,   152. 
j       first  experiments  in,   151. 
i       prospects  of  the  industry 
in,  151. 


Guadaloupe,  91.  ' 

introduction  of  sugar  cane 
in,   17. 

Havemeyer,  W.  and  F.,  204. 
Hawaii,  acreage  and  tonnage 
yield  of,  73. 
first  factory  in,  72. 
influence  of  Civil  War  on 
cane     production     in, 
72. 
introduction    of    cane    in, 

72. 
labor  problems  of,  73. 
sugar  export  of,  74. 
Hayti,  91. 

introductian  of  sugar  cane 
in,  23. 
Holland,  129,  148. 

cost  of  production  in,  148. 
sugar    beet    industry    in, 
148. 
Honey,  early  use  of,  13. 
increased     production    of, 
in  United  States,  38. 
sugar  content  of,   13. 
value  of  total  product  of, 
38. 
Hungary,  144. 
Hydrometer,  185. 

Iberia  Parish,  63. 

Import,   189. 

Indian  corn,  sugar  in,  5. 

Indigo,  59. 

Insects,  49. 


230 


Western  Suj^-ar  Refinery 


INDEX 


Invert-sugar,  184. 
Irrigation,  adaptation  of,  to 
beets,  11. 
increase  in  price  of  lands 

due  to,   119. 
influence  of,  on  beets,  118. 
Israelites,  8. 
Italy,  sugar  beets  in,  149. 

Jamaica,    decline    of    sugar 
industry  in,  90. 
rum  in,  90. 

sugar  production  in,  90. 
Japan,  activity  of,  in  sugar 
industry,  94. 
export  from,  94. 
industrial    control    of,    in 
Formosa,  94. 
Java,  cost  of  labor  in,  84. 
Dutch  policy  in,  84. 
sugar  cane  production  in, 

83,  84. 
sugar  export  from,  85. 
wages  in,  52. 
Jelinek  process,  17G. 
Jondisapur,    15. 

Labor,  cost  of,  in  cane  and 
beet  zones,  51. 
demands  for,  51. 
seasonal    distribution    of, 
51. 
La  Fourche  Parish,  63. 
Larch,  7. 
Lime  tree,  7. 
Lisbon,  sugar  center,  23. 


I    Liver,  function  of,  30. 
London,  sugar  center,  24. 
Louisiana,     acreage     of,     in 
corn,  62. 

acreage     production     and 
tonnage  price  in,  62. 

indigo  in,  59. 

parish  production  of  cane 
in,  63. 

potential    sugar    area    in, 
62. 

production  in,  1825-65,  61. 

sugar  content  in  cane  of, 
64. 

swamp    land   of,    reclaim- 
able,  64. 

Maceration,  173. 

Madeira,      introduction      of 
cane  in,  17. 

Magdeburg,  Germany,   141. 

Maggraflf,  10,  110. 

Malt  sugar,  chemical  formu- 
la of,  29. 

Manchuria,  114. 

Manna,  chemical  content  of, 
8. 
of  commerce,  7. 

Mannite,  trees  containing,  7. 

Maple     sugar,    manufacture 
of,  186. 
percentage    of    sugar    in, 
187. 

Martinique,  91. 

introduction  of  sugar  cane 
in,   17. 


231 


INDEX 


Mass-cuite,  167,  178. 
Mauritius  Island,  96. 
Mexico,  first  exporter  from 
western  continent,  81, 
introduction  of  sugar  cane 

in,  17. 
Sonora  Valley,  82. 
sugar  cane  belt  in,  81. 
sugar  production  in,  82. 
Michigan,  124,  132. 
Middle    Ages,    concessionary 
freight  rates  for  sug- 
ar in,  20. 
sugar  shipment  in,  19. 
Milk,  alcoholic  drinks  from, 
13. 
separation  of  milk  sugar 

from,  13. 
sugar  content  of,   13. 
use  of  mare's,   13. 
Milk  sugar,  chemical  formu- 
la of,  29. 
Milling,   efficiency   of  horse- 
power mill  in,  54. 
season  for,  131. 
sugar  cane,  154. 
Mohammedans,    obstruction- 
ists in  European  sug-. 
ar  trade,  21. 
Molascuit,    196. 
Molasses,    197. 

rum  production  from,  198. 
Monosaccharid,   29. 
Moors,  introduced  sugar  into 

Europe,   16. 
Moravia,  144. 


North  America,  introduction 
of  sugar  cane  in,  17. 

"  Open  kettle  "  process,  158. 
Orinoco  Valley,  88. 
Osmose  process,  179. 
Oxnard  Brothers,   116. 

Palms,  sugar  content  of,  7. 

utilized  for  sugar,  6. 
Panic,     sugar     consumption 

in,   36. 
Peach,     sugar     content     of, 

10. 
Peaj,   sugar  content  of,   10. 
Pegolotti,   19. 
Peru,  sugar  cane  belt  in,  89. 

sugar  export   from,   89. 
Philippines,   development  of 
sugar  cane  in,  78. 
handicaps  to  sugar  indus- 
try in,  80. 
preferential  tariff  in,  80. 
sugar  exports  from,  81. 
Pineapple,  sugar  content  of, 

10. 
Planting,  cane,  45. 

cane  sugar  per  acre,  46. 
Pliny,   16. 
Polariscope,   180. 
Pooling  agreement,  207. 
Porto       Rico,       competitive 
crops    with    cane    in, 
77. 
sugar  export  from,  78. 
sugar  production  in,  77. 


232 


INDEX 


Portugal,  sugar  trade  in,  in 

16th  century,  23. 
Potash,  179,  198. 

effect  of,  on  beet  crop,  11. 
Potting  raw  sugar,  161. 
Prussia,   110,  141. 
Pulp,  194. 

Rain,  effect  of  excess  of,  on 

cane,  41. 
Raisins,     countries     produc- 
ing, 12. 
import     of     sugar     from, 

12. 
sugar-producing       quality 
of,  12. 
Raspberry,  sugar  content  of, 

10. 
Rats,  49. 
Rattoon  crop,  51. 
Refinery,     first     in     United 

States,    203. 
Refining  centers,  54. 

early,  203. 
Refining    sugar,    centers    of, 
164. 
stages  of,   163. 
Remelts,   168. 

Rice  crop  in  Louisiana,  62. 
Ritter,   Karl,   15. 
Rotation   of  crops,  need  of, 

136. 
Rum,    198. 

colonial  trade  of,  27. 
production  of,   in   British 
Guiana,  88. 


Russia,  144,  223. 

acreage  and  production  in, 

145. 
beet  belt  in,  145. 
increase    of    consumption 

in,   145. 

St,  Mary's  Parish,  63. 
St.  Thomas  Island,  introduc- 
tion of  sugar  cane  in, 
22. 
San    Domingo,    introduction 

of  cane  in,  17. 
Scales,  172. 

Seed  improvement,  119. 
Seneca,  16. 
Shredder,  157. 
Silesia,   110,   144. 
Sirup,   182. 

Florida      production      of, 

66. 
manufacture  of,   184. 
maple,   185. 
states  producing,  183. 
Slavery,  growth  of,  in   18th 
century,   24. 
influence  of,  on  West  In- 
dies'   sugar    industry, 
24. 
Sorghum,  183. 

climate    and   soil   adapta- 
tion to,   183. 
growing  period  of,  5. 
states  producing,  183. 
sugar   content  of,   5. 
South  America,  222. 


233 


INDEX 


South    Carolina,   sirup   pro- 
duction in,  68. 
sugar  production  in,  68. 
Southern  States,  sugar  and 
sirup    production    in, 
69. 
Spain,  early  cane  grower,  17. 
introduction   of   cocoa   in, 

23. 
sugar  beets  in,  150. 
Spreckels,  Cal.,   125. 
Spreckels,  Claus,  116,  206. 
Starch,  change  of,  into  sug- 
ar, 1. 
Stock  food,  molasses  as,  38, 

199. 
Stones,  machine  for  remov- 
ing, 171. 
Storage  bins,   169,   171. 
Storm,  effect  of,  on  cane,  42. 
Strawberry,    sugar    content 

of,  10. 
Sugar,    advantage    of,    over 
honey,   17. 
Bounty  Act  on,  1890,  117. 
chemical    and    commercial 
discrimination  of,  31. 
consumption    of,    in    Eu- 
rope,  35. 
control  of  price  of,  212. 

of  supply  of,  211. 
cost  of  production  of,  128. 
distribution  of,  in  plants, 

1. 
drying,   180. 
future  supply  of,  216,225. 


Sugar,  grades  of,  39. 

graining,  178. 

granulation  of,   180. 

instability  of  raw,  39. 

kinds  of,  in  fruits,  9. 

nations  holding  trade  of, 
in  the  15  th  century, 
22. 

place  of,  in  balanced  ra- 
tion, 33. 

price  of,  in  15th  century, 
21. 
in  16th  century,  22. 

prices  in  1890  and  1909, 
37. 

results  of  excessive  use  of, 
33. 

shifting  of  producing  cen- 
ters of,  217,  218. 

stability  of  refined,  39. 

United  States  consump- 
tion of,  34. 

utilization  of,  in  plants, 
1. 

world  production  of,  34. 
Sugar  beets,  acreage  cost  of, 
129. 

by-products  of,  109,  193. 

climatic  control  and  essen- 
tials for,  98. 

cost  of  production  of,  in 
producing  countries, 
113. 

cultivation  of,   103. 

cutting  of,  into  cossettes, 
173. 


234 


INDEX 


Sugar  beets,  diffusion  proc- 
ess for,  174,  175,  176. 

evaporating  juice  of, 
176. 

evaporation  of,  176. 

factors  of  cost  of,  106. 

factories  for,  which  refine 
cane  sugar,  132. 

first  factory  for,  110. 

first  French  factory  for, 
111. 

growth  of,  in  humid  re- 
gions, 121. 

growth  of  industry  in, 
1900-8,   117,  118. 

growth  of  world  industry 
in,   139. 

harvesting,   168. 

improvement  in  evapora- 
tors for,  177. 

in  Belgium,   147. 

in  Denmark,   150. 

in  France,  110,   146. 

in  Germany,  111. 

in  Italv,   149. 

in  Manchuria,  114. 

in  Roumania,. Switzerland, 
Bulgaria,  Greece,  Ser- 
via,  Turkey,  Canada, 
152. 

in  Russia,  145. 

in  Spain,  150. 

in  Sweden,   149. 

in  United  States,  121. 

increase  of  sugar  content 


of,  105. 


Sugar  beets,  increased  cost 
of  production  of, 
221. 

industry   in,   during   1908, 
123,  126. 

largest  United  States  fac- 
tory  in,    125. 

shifting  of  producing  cen- 
ters of,  120. 

soil  requirements  of,   101. 

stimulating    other    indus- 
tries, 137. 

sugar  content  of,  by  coun- 
tries, 133. 

tonnage   price   of,   in   Eu- 
rope, 130. 

total  factories  for,  126. 

United     States     Belt     of, 
121. 

washing  of,  169. 
Sugar  cane,  amount  of,  cut 
per  day,  49. 

average    production    price 
of,  per  ton,  51. 

average  sugar  content  of, 
2. 

bud  protection  of,  4. 

by-products  of,   193. 

character  of  leaf  of,  4. 

character  of  root  of,  4. 

Creole  variety  of,  18. 

damage    to,    from    rainy 
season,    41. 
from  storm,  42. 

decentralization      of,      in 
progress,  56. 


235 


INDEX 


Sugar  cane,  distribution  of 
rainfall   and,   41. 

effect  of  cotton  gin  on  cul- 
tivation of,  60. 

effect  of  freezing  on,  49. 

enemies   of,   49. 

extension  of  cultivation 
of,  in  Red  River  Val- 
ley, 66. 

first  cost  of  production 
of,    52. 

geographic  distribution  of, 
40. 

harvesting,  49. 

heat-producing  value  of, 
29. 

in  Africa,  96. 

in  Argentina,    87. 

in  Australia,  95. 

in  Barbadoes,  90. 

in  Brazil,  86. 

in  British  Guiana,  88. 

in  British  India,  91. 

in  Central  America,  82. 

in  China,  93. 

in  Cuba,  74. 

in  Dutch  East  Indies,  83. 

in  French  West  Indies,  90. 

in  Guadaloupe,   90. 

in  Haiti,  91. 

in  Hawaii,  72. 

in  Jamaica,  90. 

in  Japan,  94. 

in  Java,  83. 

in  Martinique,  91. 

in  Mexico,  81. 


Sugar  cane  in  Peru,  89. 

in  Philippines,  78. 

in  Porto  Rico,  77. 

in  San  Domingo,  91. 

in  Trinidad,   90. 

in  Venezuela,  88. 

increased  cost  of  produc- 
tion of,  221. 

introduction  of,  into  North 
America,   17. 

length  of  growing  season 
for,    40. 

Louisiana  acreage  of,  62. 

Louisiana  production  of, 
by  parishes,   63. 

manufacture  of,  154,  164. 

maturing  season  for,  47. 

milling  of,  154. 

moisture  demand  of,  40. 

one  crop  system  and  ro- 
tation in  cultivation 
.    of,   42. 

price  of,  per  ton  in  Louisi- 
ana, 62. 

production  of,  in  Java, 
83. 

purple,    18. 

rainfall  requirement  of, 
per  acre,  41. 

reduction  and  separation 
of,  158. 

removing  impurities  from, 
160. 

rivalry  of,  with  sugar 
beets,   139. 

soil  adaptation  to,  42. 


236 


INDEX 


Sugar  cane,  statistics  of  pro- 
duction ai,  in  South- 
ern States,  70. 
Tahiti  variety  of,  18. 
time  of  harvesting,  5. 
time  of  planting,  45. 
tonnage  vield  of,  in  Flor- 

ida,  66. 
varieties  of,  3. 
Sugar     maple,     distribution 
of,   in  United  States, 
8. 
sugar-producing  species  of, 

8. 
time  of  tapping,  9. 
utilization   of,    for    sugar, 
8. 
Sugar  Trust,  209,  210. 
Sulphur     dioxide,     use     of, 

177. 
Sulphurous-acid    gas    in    re- 
fining,  162. 

Tamarix  tree,  8. 
Tareing,  131. 
Tariff,  53,  219,  220. 
Tastes,  in  animals,  30. 

natural     sensory     desires, 
30. 

of  staple  foods,  31. 
Texas,  competitive  crops  in, 
69. 

future  of  cane  in,  71. 

sugar  production  in,  69. 
Theophrastus,   16. 
Tigris  Valley,  15. 


Tillering,  47. 

Tobacco,    colonial    trade    of, 

27. 
Trinidad,     sugar     cane     in, 

90. 
Tropics,  sugar  cane  in,  40. 

United  Kingdom,  152. 
United  States,  132. 

cost      of      production      in, 

128. 
cotton     export     from,     in 

1790,  60. 
first    experiments    in,    on 

sugar  beets,  114,  115, 

116. 
first     permanent     factory 

in,  116. 
government   protection   of 

sugar  in,  116. 
sugar  beet  belt  in,  121. 
sugar      consumption      in, 

128. 
Utah-Idaho  Sugar  Company 

(illustration),   125. 

Vacuum   pan    ( strike   pan ) , 
178. 

Venetian  sugar  traders,  19. 

Venezuela's    sugar    cane    in- 
dustry, 88. 

Venice,     invention    of     new 
refining     method     in, 
21. 
sugar  center,  19. 


237 


INDEX 


Watermelon,    sugar    content 
of,  12. 

West  Indies,  rum  traffic  in, 
27. 
sugar  trade  of,  with  Amer- 
ican colonies,  26. 


"  Wet  rot,"  45. 
Wholesale    Grocers'    organi- 
zation, 208. 
Wilson  Act,  1894,  117. 

Zambesi  Valley,  96. 


(4) 


5 

<* 


"^ 


li 


k'", 


RSITY  14   I^AY   USE  CALIFORNIA 

^^       RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT.  s^- 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 
Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


RCC'DLD    DEC  11  7]  ■2  AM  6  1 


jARI 


-below. 


»  LD 


? 


.  LD21A-40m-8,'71 
(P6572sl0)476-A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


luEC  - 


LD  21-957n-ll,'50  (2877s 


I  t^e  end  of  PALI  Qijarterl 
'Wlor 


DEC  2  771 


ibi, 


THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   CUIFORNIA 


LIBRARY    OF 


THE    UNIVERSITY"  OF   CALIFORNIA 


LIBRARY   OF   THE    UNIVERSITY   OF    CAL 


THE    UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 
/ft) 


LIBRARY    OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   CAL 


4^'?' 


